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Cambridge University Press
052181300X - Ancient Middle Niger - Urbanism and the Self-Organizing Landscape - by Roderick J. McIntosh
Index
Index
Note: Locators for figures appear in italics.
abandonment, 199
Jenne-jeno site, 177, 181, 199
Méma Basin, 177
accommodation systematics, 32, 56, 112
in an unpredictable environment, 71
clustered settlements, 106, 108, 109, 185
specialist groups, 106, 107, 110, 117, 119
rules of interaction, 112–114, 117, 120, 122, 132
self-organization as, 58, 102, 130
serial evolution of, 71, 110 See also Pulse Model
actual evapotranspiration (AET), 92
Adams, Robert M.
Hans Nissen and, The Uruk Countryside, 193, 211
Heartland of Cities, 193
Adepts, 139
AET (actual evapotranspiration), 92
African Union, 4
agrarian lifestyle, 96
agricultural intensification, lack of, 175, 176
agro-literate states, 21
Aklé dune system, 71
Akumbu site, 127, 128, 166
Albright, W. F., 24
Aldred, Cyril, 217
alienation, 132
Allen, P. M., 31, 33, 36, 40
Allen, T. F. H., 204, 205, 206
Alley, R. B., 79
Amadou, Sékou, 122
American Southwest, 75
Ancestral Puebloans (North America), 75, 141
Andrews, Anthony P., 15
First Cities, 13–14
anomie, 131
Anyang (China), 221
Aougoundou, Lake, 69
archaeological record
Pulse Model supported by, 128
recognition of specialist/corporate groups, 131, 148, 158
archaeologists
habits of mind, 29
implicit social values, 23, 25
interpretation of data, 107
archaeology
cognitive, 187
The Archaeology of City-States (Nichols and Charlton), 21
architecture
city walls, 175, 224
monuments, 15, 25, 26
mosques, 177
Arma people, 120
art
monumental, 15
symbolism of, 160
Aryans, 24
Ashmore, Wendy, 55, 58
Attarian, Christopher J., 132–133
authority
harvested by nyamakalaw, 188
persuasive and contractual, 207
resistance to, 188, 189, 205, 215, 222
authority axis, 35, 40
autonomy, 28 See also freedom
axes, groundstone, 127
Azawad Basin (Mali), 60, 70, 117
Azawagh paleochannel, 49
Aztec social order, 130
Babylon
creation epic, 20
Larsa kingdom, 214
Balée’s premises, 50–52
Bambara millet farmers, 68, 113, 120, 122, 179
Bani River, 61
banishment, 96
Baoulé paleochannel, 49
Bara-Issa, 65, 68
Barkérou site, 127
The Basin of Mexico (Sanders, Parsons, and Santley), 193
Bayo, Laminigbé, 134
beads, glass, 175, 176
Bedaux, Rogier M. A., J. D. Van der Waals and, Djenné. Une Ville Millénaire au Mali, 131
Bénédougou, 146
Bérétouma people, 126–127
Bida (great snake), 49, 138
bifurcation, 33
biosphere, affected by human activity, 51, 55
birds, 94
blacksmiths, 137, 138
technical knowledge and occult prowess, 151, 153, 155
Bosumtwi, Lake, 80, 84
boundaries, 108, 109, 114
Boundou Boubou North cluster, 129
Boundou Boubou South cluster, 128
Bozo people, 120, 121–122, 149, 167
bracelets, polished stone, 127
Bradley, R. S., 79
braided channels, 61
Bras de Nampala paleochannel, 71
Breasted, James Henry, 24
Breuning, Peter, 95
bronze, 148
Brooks, George E., 85
burial practices, 169, 177
Cariaco Basin (Venezuela)
monsoons, 85
sediments as proxy measure for precipitation, 78
catastrophic discontinuities, 79, 81, 84
cattle
terracotta statuettes, 127 See also herders
causation, levels of, 50
ceramics, 128, 174, 199
Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147
Jenne-jeno sequence, 147
Painted Ware, 147
Tellem footed bowl, 176
Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware, 147, 169, 174, 200
Chad, Lake, 75, 82, 83, 84
Chang, K.-C., 210, 221–225
chaos, 56, 227
Sahelian climate as, 58, 73, 79
charcoal burners’ corporation, 152
Charlton, T. H., D. L. Nichols and, The Archaeology of City-States, 21
Childe, V. Gordon, 13, 17
China
clustered settlement patterns, 221–225, 226
Shang dynasty, 221
chronology, 15, 46, 49, 147
anchoring sequence, 165, 180
ecological clustering (800–400 BC), 164–167, 174
early cities (400 BC–AD 400), 173–175
globalization of Middle Niger cities (AD 1600), 179
stable city island (AD 1400–1600), 163–164, 179
urban prosperity (AD 400–1000/1100), 175–177
urban shake-up (AD 1000/1100–1400), 177–179
Cincinnatus, 228
cities
with citadels, 11, 175, 224
definitions, 13, 17–18, 129, 149–151, 163, 192
as emergent intelligence, 44
Greco-Roman, 23–24
heterogeneity in, 148
as metaphors, 25
origins south of the Sahara, 3
as pattern-amplifying machines, 42, 136
proto-cities, 164–167, 174, 210
with state-level organization, 6, 10–12, 13, 14
traditional theories of, 10–12
without state-level organization, 12, 14, 16, 43 See also urbanism
city walls, 175, 224
civilization, 13
cladograms, 29, 30
Clark, Mary, 184, 200
Clay, Albert, 24
climate
growing seasons, 91
Holocene proxy measures, 77
land–atmospheric–oceanic system, 76, 79
Sahelian, as chaotic, 58, 73, 79 See also meteorological data; paleoclimate
climate change, 76, 80, 111
anthropogenic, 46
deglaciation, 79, 81
human response to, 53
time scale
102, 86
103, 85, 115
104, 84, 115
105, 78
interannual, 87
inter-decadal, 87
climate modes, 79
anomaly types, 85–87, 86
climate phases
Phase I: Oscillatory Transition, 81
Phase II: Stable (First Holocene Pluvial), 80, 81
Phase III: Stable (Second Holocene Pluvial), 82
Phase IV: Fluid Frontiers, 83
Phase V: Big Dry, 84
Phase VI: Stable Optimum, 84
Phase VII: High Unpredictability, 84–86
climatic pulses, 89 See also Pulse Model
clustered settlements
Chinese, 221–225, 226
Egyptian, 217
Iron Age, 123, 128–129
Mesopotamian, 211, 225
Middle Niger, 128–129, 139, 141–142
clustering
as a proto-urban process, 164–167, 174
of specialist groups, 102, 210
in an unpredictable environment, 106, 108, 109, 185
co-evolution, 32, 33, 42, 56
cognitive archaeology, 187
Colombijn, F., 132
colonization hypotheses, 173
communication via criers, 7
community good, 139
complexity, 32
conflicts
inter-ethnic, 121–122
over land use, 112, 121
Conrad, David, 134, 139
copper, 147, 148, 157
core–periphery, 223, 224
core rules (Mande)
power (nyama) and, 136–138, 203
of reputation, 41–42, 114, 135–137, 149, 205, 208
specialists and, 129
core values
distribution of environmental risks, 96, 111, 205
corporate, definition, 16–18
corporate diversity, 16–18, 40
corporate groups
archaeological recognition of, 148
collaboration of, 141
identity, 108, 134–135, 149, 160, 160–162
proxy measure of, 162 See also ethnic groups; specialist groups
corvée labor, 215
co-speciation, 32
Covenantial Piety, 22, 23
creation epics
Babylonian, 20
Mesopotamian, 14
crops, 63, 95–96, 117
Cultural Ecology, 45
culture areas, 174
Dahl, G., 101
dalimasigi. See knowledge quests (dalimasigi)
Dantu site, 225
Daounas highlands, 69
data
freedom from bias, 193
goodness of fit, 193, 194
non-comparability of, 193
Dean, Jeffrey, 87
Débo, Lake, 65, 66, 68
debt, salutary and undischargeable, 113, 203
decentralization, 208, 214–216
decision making
coercive, 132
by consensus, 132
deglaciation, 79, 81
deltas
bird foot, 66
dead, 60, 70 See also Méma Basin (Mali)
live, 61
DeMenocol, Peter, 75
democracy, 12
desertification, 53
determinism, 29, 51
diagnostic artifacts, 163, 170
Diaka channel, 65
Dia Urban Cluster, 167–170, 168, 174, 177, 181–183, 182
hinterlands, 168, 200–201, 201
discovery, 5
definition, 1
discrimination, typology of, 162
diversification, 149
vs. specialization, 119
within specialization, 52
diversity
corporate, 16–18, 40
ecological, 141, 142, 143, 188
divine right of kings, 25
Djenné. Une Ville Millénaire au Mali (Bedaux and Van der Waals), 131
Dô, Lake, 69
Dogon people, 113, 120, 155
donkey-carts, 3, 4
Doupwil site, 179
Dyula (Wangara), 146–147, 148, 167
Early Dryas, 81
Echinocloa stagnina, 66
ecological abstractions, 111, 120
via mythology, 112
Ecological Resilience, 149
economy, urban, 129, 133
Ecosocial Interdependence, 222, 225
ecosystems, hierarchical concept of, 28, 55, 139, 140, 142
edaphic conditions. See soils
Egypt, 1
Predynastic period, 209–210, 216–221, 218 See also Nile Valley
El-Ahmar paleochannel, 49, 70–71, 117
elites, 15, 21, 150, 217
lack of, 189
emergent intelligence, cities as, 44
endogamy, 113
energized crowding, 130, 134
environment, 33, 45
erg, definition, 66
Erg of Bara basin (Mali), 65, 67–68, 120
Erg de Ouagadou, 71
Etheria elliptica (freshwater oyster), 123
ethnic groups
ecological abstractions and, 114
identity, 106, 110, 112, 130
subsistence-defined geokistic map, 121 See also corporate groups; specialist groups
Euphrates River
floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57 See also Mesopotamia
evidence
high preponderance of, 162
inferential testimony of, 162
evolutionary mutation, 24
ex astra state hierarchy, 18–23, 19, 26, 143, 211, 223
excavation, 183, 184
Jenne, 184
Jenne-jeno, 170–173
Feature 21, 155, 156
House 10, 153–155, 154
mille-feuille strata, 145
SM-O wall complexes, 178
unit LX, 170
units and cores, 172
mechanical coring, 184
test strategy, 163, 164
exchange, 127, 141, 149, 175, 205
gold trade, 6
Faguibine, Lake, 64, 69
Faita people, 127
Fala de Molodo paleochannel, 71
farmers, 103, 105
Bambara millet, 68, 113, 120, 122, 179
Marka (Nono) rice, 65, 112–113, 120, 120–122, 149, 167
Ferlo Valley, 117
field journal, 3
Fine Channeled and Impressed Ware, 147
Fineware. See Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware
First Cities (Andrews), 13–14
fish, 94
fisherfolk, 103, 108, 120, 149, 150
flexibility, 41, 58, 73, 143
Flohn, H., 34
flood area, 90–92
floodplains
comparison of, 71
Middle Niger, 56–57, 61–63
Nile, 56–57
Tigris/Euphrates, 1, 53, 56–57
vegetation, 66
flora, 92–94
crops, 63, 95–96, 117
floodplain vegetation, 66
grasses, 93
foraminifera, planktonic, 74
Frank, Barbara E., 158
freedom, 22, 25
freedom from bias, 193
Friedman, Renée, 220
fruits, 94
Fulani (Peul) herders, 65, 66, 120, 122, 179
funerary features, 171 See also burial practices
Furon, Raymond, 71
Galia site, 179
Gao (Mali), 92
Gao Trough, 60
Gaou, Lake, 69
Garrard, Timothy, 157
gatekeepers, 15, 19, 139
gatherers, 96
generalists vs. specialists, 125–126, 127
Geni. See Jenne (Mali)
geokistic maps
Méma Basin, 98, 100
Nile Valley, 97
subsistence-defined ethnic groups, 121
geokistics, as a predictive model for settlement patterns, 98 See also geokistic maps
geology
faulting and subsidence, 60–61
satellite image of folded rocks, 64
geomorphology, 57, 59, 60–63
anastomosing rivers, 60, 61, 215
Méma Basin, 70–73, 72
Ghana Empire, 12, 49, 177
gold, 157, 176
gold trade, 6
goldweights, 157
goodness of fit, 193, 194
Gorgol paleochannel, 49, 117
Goundam Hills, 69
Gourma-Rharous (Mali), 69
granary/altar, 185
grasses, 93
Greco-Roman cities, 23–24
Green, F. W., 219
grinding stones, 144–147
growing seasons, 91
Guinea, coast deep-drilling project, 73
Hambarketolo site, 3, 152, 184
Hamdallahi site, 180
Han dynasty, 175
Haribomo, Lake, 69
Hassan, Fekri, 79, 96, 98, 217, 219
Heartland of Cities (Adams), 193
herders, 95, 103, 126
Fulani (Peul), 65, 66, 120, 122, 179 See also pastoralism
heterarchies
ethos of resistance to authority, 188, 189, 205, 215, 222
logic of, 43, 141, 187–189
Middle Niger, 44, 208, 228
phase transform diagram, 207
as superordinate systems, 28
heterogeneity in cities, 148
Hierakonpolis (Egypt), 210, 217–221, 218
hierarchical segmentation, 223, 225
hierarchies
advantages of, 27–28
alternatives to, 189, 211
collapse of, 207, 227
ex astra state hierarchy, 18–23, 19, 26, 143, 211, 223
fused, 28–29, 135
social/political structure, 15–16, 17, 177, 202
hierarchy–heterarchy nesting, 215, 222, 223, 225, 227, 228
High Amplitude Variability (HAV), 79, 87
High Temporal Variability (HTV), 79, 87
Hilprecht, Hermann, 24
historical documents, 130
Historical Ecology, 45–46, 50, 53–56, 119
Balée’s premises, 50–52 See also landscape
Hoekstra, T. W. (Allen et al.), 204, 205, 206
Hoffman, Michael A., 219
Holocene Pluvial
First, 80, 81
Second, 82
Hopewell peoples (North America), 138
Hopkins, Anthony E., 147
horizontal authority, 141 See also heterarchies
horses, introduction of, 177
households, 149
Human Ecology, 45
hunters, 96, 138
hydrology, 46, 46–48, 47, 59, 72
hypotheses
colonization hypotheses, 173
orbital monsoon hypothesis, 76
Ice Age–Holocene hinge, 80
identity
ambiguity of, 109, 114
corporate groups, 108, 134–135, 149, 160, 160–162
ethnic groups, 106, 110, 112, 130
as one’s place in the environment, 107
representation of, 120, 135
social self-selection, 133–134
specialist groups, 130, 133–134
Imperial Tradition, 177
Inca social order, 130
infanticide, 96
infestations, 96
interaction spheres, 224
intermarriage, regulation of, 113
invisibility function, 162
Iron Age sites, 127
clustered, 123, 128–129
Méma Basin, 124
iron ore, 147
iron production, 108, 138, 151–156, 176
Islam, 160, 161, 177
Israel, 24
Issa-Ber River, 68
Jacobsen, Thorkild, 14
Jantsch, Erich, 34
Jenne (Mali), 131, 174, 179–180, 202
alternative spellings and names, 6
hinterlands, 120, 198
SM-O wall complexes, 178
surface collection, 183
Jenne-jeno site
abandonment, 177, 181, 199
alternative spellings and names, 7
ceramic sequence, 147
cladograms, 30
discovery, 1–5
excavation, 170–173
Feature 2, 155, 156
House 10, 153–155, 154
mille-feuille strata, 145
unit LX, 170
units and cores, 172
hinterlands, 108, 183
mound, 2
relationship to Dia, 183
research strategy, 183–185
Urban Complex, 184, 186, 187
Johnson, Steven, 43–44, 150
Judaism, 26
Kangousa site, 108–109
Kaniana site, 122, 184
Kauffman, Stuart, 32, 33
Keightley, David, 221
Kemp, Barry J., 217–219
kinship bonds, fictive, 113
Knapp, A. B., 55, 58
knowledge, occult, 121, 141, 153, 190
of blacksmiths, 151, 153, 155
knowledge quests (dalimasigi), 138–139, 140, 190, 203
Knox, P. L., 150
Koanta lineage, 167
Kobadi people, 126–127
Koechlin, Jean, 87, 92
Koli-Koli channel, 68
Kolima cluster, 127
Kolima Sud, 127
Kolima Sud-Ouest, 127
Kolimbiné paleochannel, 49
Konaré, Adam Ba, 208
Konaré, Alpha Oumar, 4, 12, 162, 207–208
Koran, 161, 180
Korientzé, Lake, 65, 68, 69
Kostof, Spiro, 130, 134
Kuhn, Thomas, 29
Kutzbach, J. E., 76
Lakes Region (Mali), 68–69
landscape, 55–56
archaeological analysis of, 129
knowledge quests and, 139
perceptions of, 50, 58, 89, 100, 111, 149
Mande, 139–142, 149, 187–191
self-organizing, 42, 44, 52, 136–137, 205, 225 See also phase transform diagrams
co-evolution and, 32–33
Level I, 102–104, 103
Level II, 104, 104
Level III, 105, 106
Level IV, 105, 107
as “over-engineered,” 43
specialist groups knowledge of, 101
total landscape phenomena, 51–53
traits
chaotic matrix of biophysical, 56
wealth of resources, 56, 96
landscape amplification, 140, 142
Larsa kingdom, 214
Late Glacial Maximum, 80
laterite, 63, 69
Lates niloticus (Nile perch), 126
Late Stone Age, 174
Méma Basin sites, 124
migrations, 84
settlement patterns, 123–128
Late Stone Age–Iron Age transition, 164–167
LaViolette, Adria, 180
Levant, 24
Levtzion, Nehemia, 12
Liangchengzhen site, 225
Little Ice Age, 75, 84
locust, desert (Schistocerca gregaria), 96
looters, 8, 160
Lorenz, Edward, 34, 76, 87
MacDonald, Kevin, 123–128, 194
Macina Basin (Mali), 54, 66–67, 67
magic square, 161, 180
Makaske, Bart, 61
Malfante, Antonio, 6
Mali Empire, 12, 177, 190, 202
mammals, 94
domesticated, 95 See also herders
Mande people
core rules of reputation, 41–42, 114, 135–137, 149, 205, 208
heroes and heroines, 134, 137, 138, 190, 203
sacred power-places, 138, 139–142, 187–191
view of landscapes, 139–142, 149, 187–191
Mangabéra site, 194, 196, 197
Manzanilla, L., 11
mapping of sites, 184
maps
geokistic
Méma Basin, 98, 100
Nile Valley, 97
subsistence-defined ethnic groups, 121
Macina Basin, 54
Méma Basin, 46, 46–48, 54
Upper Delta Basin, 57
Mara site, 167–170, 168
Marka (Nono) rice farmers, 65, 112–113, 120, 120–122, 149, 167
Mashkan-shapir (Mesopotamia), 214–216
masons’ corporation, 158
material culture, 111
Mauny, Raymond, 22
Tableau Géographique de l’Ouest Africain, 9–10
Mauritania, 117
coast deep-drilling project, 73
Maya peoples
sacbeob roadway, 138
social order, 130
McIntosh, Susan
on copper–bronze–brass evolution, 176
on culture areas, 174
diversification within specialization, 51
Jenne-jeno impressions, 3, 5
Middle Niger as the “Island of Gold,” 176
on neoevolutionary theory, 36
reorganization of production centers, 155
reorganization of trade, 183
Timbuktu hinterland survey, 194
McNaughton, Patrick, 137, 140
Medieval Warm period, 84
Méma Basin (Mali)
abandonment, 177
dead delta, 60
geokistics map, 98, 100
geomorphology, 70–73, 72
hydrology, 46, 46–48, 72
map, 54
Pulse Model and, 117
satellite image, 99
settlement patterns, 123–129
sites, 123–129, 124
vehicular survey, 195
Mesoamerica, 11
Mesopotamia
creation epic, 14
Early Dynastic hierarchy, 214
floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57
geomorphology, 57
Mashkan-shapir, 214–216
urban history, 24, 130, 211
Uruk period, 209, 209–210, 211–214
Warka Survey, 212
metalworking, copper–bronze–brass evolution, 176
meteorological data, 73, 85
methodology
judgmental survey, 192–197
master units, 170
surface recording, 184
systematic survey, 197–199, 200, 225
micro-desertification, 53
Middle Niger basins, 16, 56, 58
Azawad, 60, 70, 117
Erg of Bara, 65, 67–68, 120
floodplain, 56–57, 61–63
geology/geomorphology, 59, 60–63
hydrology, 47
Lakes Region and Niger Bend, 68–69
Macina, 54, 66–67, 67
Méma, 46, 46–48, 72
abandonment, 177
dead delta, 60
geokistics map, 98, 100
geomorphology, 70–73, 72
hydrology, 46, 46–48, 72
map, 54
Pulse Model and, 117
satellite image, 99
settlement patterns, 123–129
sites, 123–129, 124
vehicular survey, 195
Upper Delta, 46, 46–48, 63, 64–66
geomorphology, 57
migrations, 84, 116, 174 See also Pulse Model
Milankovitch (orbital-beat) cycles, 76–79
millet (Pennisetum americanum), 63, 68, 95, 105
Millinski, Manfred, 42, 114
Missions Paléoenvironnements du Sahara Occidental et Central, 1980–88, 81
monoculture, dangers of, 119
Monod, Théodore, 22
monsoons
Atlantic data, 74
Cariaco Basin (Venezuela), 85
global patterns, 76
Monteil, Charles, 167
monuments, 15, 25, 26
Mopti (Mali), 92
Morris, I., 21
mosques, 177
mud brick, cylindrical, 158
mythology, 112, 114, 120
as legitimization, 161
reinforcing rules of interaction, 122
Naqada (Egypt), 217–221
Nara Trough, 60
Ndondi Tossokel people, 126–127
nesting of hierarchy–heterarchy, 215, 222, 223, 225, 227, 228
Neumann, Katharina, 95
Niakené Maoudo paleochannel, 71
Niane, D. T., 179
Niangay, Lake, 69
Nicholson, Sharon, 73, 85–87
nickpoints, climatic, 79
Niessouma cluster, 128
Niger Bend, 68–69
Niger–Chad Sudanian ichthyological province, 94
Niger River, 46, 61, 62
Nile Valley, 100
floodplain, 56–57
geokistic map, 97
geomorphology, 57
settlement patterns, 218 See also Egypt
Nissen, Hans, Robert M. Adams and, The Uruk Countryside, 193, 211
Nono rice farmers. See Marka (Nono) rice farmers
Nubia, 216
nucleation, 52
nyama (power), 140, 153, 188–191
core rules and, 136–138, 203
Nyansanare levee, 65
occult knowledge, 121, 141, 153, 190
of blacksmiths, 151, 153, 155
onomasticon, 138, 139, 140
orbital-beat cycles, 76–79
orbital monsoon hypothesis, 76
origin traditions, 167, 170–173
Oryza barthii spp. (wild rice), 63, 66
Oryza glaberrima (African rice), 63, 95, 120
Oriya sativa (Asian rice), 63, 120
“over-engineering,” , 43, 207 See also flexibility
oyster, freshwater (Etheria elliptica), 123
pacemakers, 136
Painted Ware, 147
paleochannels, 47, 49, 65, 68, 70–71, 117
paleoclimate, 80
climate change
interannual time scale, 87
inter-decadal time scale, 87
102 time scale, 86
103 time scale, 85, 115
104 time scale, 84, 115
105 time scale, 78
Late Glacial Ice Age, 65
Pleistocene dry phase, 65
proxy measures, 73–75, 80
reconstruction, 75, 85
trends, 73
Paléo-Débo, Lake, 65, 66
paradoxes
diversification within specialization, 52
of specialization, 109, 119
Sustainability Paradox, 203–204, 206
Park, Thomas K., 73
Parsons, Jeffrey R., William T. Sanders, Robert S. Santley and, The Basin of Mexico, 193
pastoralism, 105, 117 See also herders
patchiness, climatic, 75
pattern-amplifying machines, cities as, 42, 136
Pennisetum americanum (millet), 63, 68, 95, 105
perceptions of landscape, 50, 58, 89, 100, 111, 149
perch, Nile (Lates niloticus), 126
permanence, signposts of, 14
PET (potential evapotranspiration), 92
Petit-Maire, Nicole, 81
phase (intransitivity) diagrams, 34
phase transform diagrams, 34–40
of heterarchical cities, 207
Middle Niger, 35–39, 43, 44, 79, 201, 202 See also self-organizing landscape
phase transitions, 33, 76, 79, 87, 104
piety, 26
planktonic foraminifera, 74
polities, 220
peer, 217
regional, 216
Pollock, Susan, 214
polynucleated sprawl, 181, 185
Pondori depression, 65
population axis, 35, 40
population density, 7
potential evapotranspiration (PET), 92
potters’ corporation, 105, 158
power
3-D spatial blueprint of, 139, 141, 188
despotic, 143
nyama, 140, 153, 188–191
core rules and, 136–138, 203
of place, 138, 139–142, 187–191
resistance to, 188, 189, 205, 215, 222
of the state, 26
of symbols, 162
precipitation
Cariaco Basin sediments as proxy measure for, 78
Jenne (Mali), 88
Timbuktu (Mali), 88
precipitation patterns
anomaly types, 85–87
Prigogine, I., 31, 33, 36, 40
Projet d’Inventaire des Sites Archéologique, La Zone Lacustre (Raimbault and Sanogo), 194
proto-cities, 164–167, 174, 210
proto-polities, 210
proxy measures
Cariaco Basin sediments, 78
for Holocene climate, 77
paleoclimate, 73–75, 80
of specialization, 131
Pulse Model, 102–106, 114, 115, 116
predicting settlement patterns, 110, 119, 165
resolving the paradox of specialization, 109, 119
serial evolution of accommodation and, 71, 110
testable implications of, 106–108, 117–119, 123–125, 128
undercounting diversity, 149 See also accommodation systematics
Quibell, J. E., 219
radiocarbon dating, 164
Raimbault, Michel, Kléna Sanogo and, Projet d’Inventaire des Sites Archéologique, La Zone Lacustre, 194
Raynaut, Claude, 96
reality, social construction of, 111
reciprocity, 42, 114, 137, 141, 206
reductionism, 29–31, 34, 51
reputation, 43
core rules of (Mande), 41–42, 114, 135–137, 149, 205, 208
research strategy, 163, 183–185, 197–200
resilience, 53
definition, 205–206
ecological, 149
vs. sustainability, 206
within sustainability, 207
resources, availability of, 56, 96
responsibility, definition, 41
rice, 63, 68, 105
rice, African (Oryza glaberrima), 63, 95, 120
rice, Asian (Oryza sativa), 63, 120
rice, wild (Oryza barthii spp.), 63, 66
Rimaibe people, 120, 122, 149
risk management, 96, 111, 205
rivers
braided channels, 61
deltas, 60, 61, 66, 70
paleochannels, 47, 49, 65, 68, 70–71, 117
rulers, divine right of, 25
rules of interaction, 112–114, 117, 120, 132
mythology reinforcing, 122 See also core rules (Mande)
al-Sa˓di, 177
Ta’rikh es-Sudan, 6–8
Saharan–Sahel frontier, 116
Sahel Drought, 75, 86
Sahelian climate modes, 86
salination of soils, 92
salinity of ocean water, 74
salt, 148
Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, Robert S. Santley and, The Basin of Mexico, 193
Sanogo, Kléna, Michel Raimbault and, Projet d’Inventaire des Sites Archéologique, La Zone Lacustre, 194
Santley, Robert S., Jeffrey R. Parsons, William T. Sanders and, The Basin of Mexico, 193
satellite communities, 181, 189
Schistocerca gregaria (desert locust), 96
sea surface temperature (SST), 74–75
as proxy measure for Holocene climate, 77
Sebi-Marigot paleochannel, 65
sedentarism, 105, 125
sediments, Cariaco Basin, as proxy measure for precipitation, 78
Ségou Basin (Mali), 60
self-definition, 130, 133
self-interest vs. superordinate interest, 28
self-organization, 31, 36–40, 43, 211
as accommodation, 58, 102, 130
self-organization and complexity studies, 27
self-organization dynamics, 33–34
self-organizing landscape, 42, 44, 52, 136–137, 205, 225
co-evolution and, 32–33
Level I, 102–104, 103
Level II, 104, 104
Level III, 105, 106
Level IV, 105, 107
as “over-engineered,” , 43 See also phase transform diagrams
Senegal, 117
Senegal River, 46
Senegal Valley, 57
senilicide, 96
settlement patterns
geokistics as a predictive model for, 98 See also geokistic maps
Iron Age, 129
Pulse Model predicting, 110, 119, 165
of specialist groups, 96, 157, 158, 220
Shangqiu Project, 224
Shoma site, 167–170, 168, 200
Shukla, Jagadish, 45, 73
signal amplification, 139, 141
Smith, Andy, 101
Smith, Monica L., 132, 133, 181
Smith, Zeric, 208
snake, great (Bida), 49, 138
Social Memory, 89
social organization, 21
horizontal, 189, 223
individual’s position within, 223
oscillation between heterarchy and hierarchy, 227
terracotta statuettes as proxy measure of, 158
urbanization theory, 132 See also heterarchies; hierarchies
social values
archaeological testing of, 188
implicit, of archaeologists, 23, 25
sodalities, 137
soils, 89–92, 116
solar radiation, 76, 79
Somono people, 108, 120, 121, 149
Songhai Empire, 120, 177, 202
Soninké merchants, 183
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), 63, 68, 95, 105
Sorko Bozo people, 95, 149
specialist groups
archaeological recognition of, 131, 158
clustering of, 102, 210
core rules and, 129
identity, 130, 133–134
knowledge of landscape, 101
settlement patterns, 96, 157, 158, 220
in an unpredictable environment, 106, 107, 110, 117, 119
vs. generalists, 125–126, 127 See also corporate groups; ethnic groups; specific specialities
specialization, 96, 117, 206
diversification within, 52
paradox of, 109, 119
proxy measures of, 131, 158
vs. diversification, 119
SST (sea surface temperature), 74–75
as proxy measure for Holocene climate, 77
states
agro-literate, 21
cities with state-level organization, 6, 10–12, 13, 14
infrastructure, 16
power of, 26
urbanism and, 211, 217–219 See also ex astra state hierarchy
statuettes, terracotta, 8, 158
of cattle, 127
male–female pairs, 155
as proxy measure of social complexity, 158
Stone, Elizabeth, 214–215
stories. See mythology
subsistence, 134, 174, 176
Sundström, Lars, 122
survey methodology
judgmental survey, 192–197
systematic survey, 197–199, 200, 225
sustainability, 29, 52, 53, 205
definition, 204–205
resilience within, 207
vs. resilience, 206
sustainability axis, 35
Sustainability Paradox, 203–204, 206
symbiosis, 27, 122
symbols
of belonging, 161
magic square, 161, 180
power of, 162
Tableau Géographique de l’Ouest Africain (Mauny), 9–10
Tainter, J. A. (Allen et al.), 204, 205, 206
tales. See mythology
Taoudenni syncline, 60, 70
Ta’rikh es-Sudan (al-Sa˓di), 6–8
Tegdaoust, 183
Télé, Lake, 69
Tellem footed bowl, 176
tells, 22
definition, 12
Thomas, David, 21
Tichitt (Mauritania), 95
Tigris River
floodplain, 1, 53, 56–57 See also Mesopotamia
Timbuktu (Mali), 69, 91
hinterlands, 194
survey, 196
Togola, Téréba, 123, 128–129, 166–167, 194, 194
Tossaye Sill, 60
total landscape phenomena, 51–53
trade, 147–148
local, 148
long-distance, 148, 175
networks, 147
riverine exchange system, 176
trans-Saharan camel trade, 148
reorganization of, 183
traders, 146–147
Tragedy of the Commons, 41, 43, 114
Traoré, Baukassou, 162
Traoré, Salumoy, 155
Trigger, Bruce, 17, 149, 192, 217–219
Tuareg people, 122
tumuli, 177
twins, ancestral, 113
Typha swamp, 92
Underhill, Anne P., 225
universals of life in large concentrations, 131–132
unpredictability, 58, 119
Upper Delta Basin (Mali), 46, 46–48, 63, 64–66
map, 57
Upper Inland Niger Delta Fineware, 147, 169, 174, 200
Urban Complexes, 181, 188
urbanism, 10, 22, 23, 36–40, 224, 225
definition, 185
statehood and, 211, 217–219
theocratic, 26 See also cities
urbanization
criteria, 222
theory of, 132
urban society, 209
criteria, 13
The Uruk Countryside (Adams and Nissen), 193, 211
Vallée du Serpent, 48–50, 138
hydrology, 47
Van der Waals, J. D., Rogier M. A. Bedaux and, Djenné. Une Ville Millénaire au Mali, 131
Vansina, Jan, 111, 160
variability, 53, 86, 87, 163, 168, 170
in the archaeological record, 163
vegetation
of the floodplain, 66
zones, 91
Vernet, Robert, 80, 84, 85, 89
Vieillard, G., 8
Wagadu Empire, 49
Walado, Lake, 66
Wangara. See Dyula (Wangara)
Warka Survey, 211, 212
Waso Boran people (Kenya), 101
water balance, 92
water management, 215
water spirits, 112, 138, 149, 153, 190
wealth, 90
West Africa, 5–8
West Africa craton, 60
Wilkinson, T. J., 192, 215
Wilkinson, Toby A. H., 216, 219
Wilson, John, 210, 217
Wright, Rita, 211, 215
Xolimbiné Valley, 117, 118
Yahwism, 22, 23–27, 227
Younger Dryas, 80
Zeder, Melinda, 129, 133
Zhengzhou (China), 221
Zimansky, Paul, 214–215
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