Cambridge University Press
9780521825047 - Animal Intelligence - From Individual to Social Cognition - by Zhanna Reznikova
Index
Index
abstract concepts 182
abstract reasoning 171
abstract relations 154
abstraction 158–63, 211, 223–4
acoustic discrimination 318, 326, 339, 342–50, 366–7
acquired coordinations 272–8
adaptation 4–5, 258–61
addition/subtraction 225–9
advertising, psychology of 15
age-correlated labour division 380–1
age-specific brain develoment 86
age-specific learning 134–6
ageing, cognitive decline 85, 86
aggressive traits 256, 308
Ai, chimpanzee 224
Akeakamai, dolphin 339–41
alarm call responses 253–4, 348
albatrosses 105
Alex, parrot 134–5, 223, 337–9
altricial animals 267, 280–1
altruism 129, 372–6
American Sign Language (ASL) 331–3
anger reaction 135
animal intelligence (AI)
early studies 3–10
see also intelligence
animal learning see learning
animal societies
culture in 313–19
functional structure 377–92
intelligence in 361–71
pluralism in 256–66
sociality in 369–71
animal training 17, 47, 50–1, 52–4
anonymity, in animal communities 364–9
ant fishing, by primates 187, 188–9, 311, 315
anthropomorphism 6–7
anticipation 71–2, 89–90, 93–5
ants
adaptation learning 259–61
aphid care 391–2
aphid-milking 273–4
arithmetical skills 227–9
on Cartesian grid 129–31
communication 356–7
desert 105, 108–9
exploratory behaviour 67, 184–5
hunting behaviour 258, 274–8, 306, 390–1
individual recognition 365
information transfer 129–31, 352–5
innovative behaviour 308
landmark learning 115, 219–22
language 355–7
learning abilities 6, 80, 299
maze studies 6, 77, 95
memory 77
navigation 105, 108–9, 111–12
red wood 95, 129–31, 219–22, 248
route marking 112
sign stimuli 248
slavery 269–70
social hierarchy 395
social imprinting 284
steppe 113
apes
artificial language use 290, 334–7
behavioural traditions 305–7
cognitive mapping 128, 129
object permanence 136
tool use problems 204, 207
see also individual class or species
aphasia studies 22
aphid-milking, by ants 273–4, 391–2
aphids 378, 381–2
Aplysia marine snail 41, 79
appetitive characteristics 54
arbitrariness of units of language 328
arc track 133
arithmetic 224–9
artificial fruit, in imitation studies 297–8
artificial languages 334–7
see also gesture languages; token language
associative concepts 167
associative learning 42– 54
of cephalopods 78
different forms of 54–63
imprinting compared 280
preparedness 250–4
rules of 64–6
attachment behaviour 279–86, 281
attention
associative learning 61–3
extinction of 44–5
in purposeful behaviour 55
auditory stimuli
discrimination 236
imprinting 281, 284
memory 74
auditory-visual intermodal matching (AVMTS) 168
autoshaping 7
aversive characteristics 54
avoidance behaviour 65
baboons
categorisation 154–5
mimicking 290
relational matching 171–2
role hierarchy 395
same/different concept 153
size discrimination 158
babysitting 387, 388–90
bats 375
bearing map 120
beavers 243, 249
bees
altruism 129
cognitive ability 234
concept formation 355
dance language 129, 240
discrimination 146, 147
memory 79–81
navigation 111, 129, 356
visual information processing 165–6
see also bumble-bees; honeybees
beetles 258, 259–61
behaviour
altruistic 372–6
conceptually mediated 152
instinctive 240–3
knowledge and 231–2
language in 327
learning about 313–14
shaping 18, 52
behavioural ecology 97–8
behavioural patterns 267–72
see also fixed action patterns
behavioural phenotypes 256–8
behavioural plasticity 307–8
behavioural specialisation 256–66
behavioural traditions 287–8, 289, 303–6, 306–9, 314–16
behavioural traits, rituals 46
behaviourism
classical 11–16
Skinnerian 16–19
Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich 23–4
Betty, crow 207–8
binary tree apparatus 352–5
biochemical changes, in memory 87–8
birds
acoustic signals 342–3
behavioural tradition 304
brood parasites 283
colour discrimination 57
cooperative behaviour 386–7, 390
cross-fostering studies 270–2
dormant behaviour 307
episodic memory 81–3
extrapolation tests 126–8
fixed action patterns 245–6, 278
food caches 136, 262–6, 267
retrieval 116, 119
food calls 349
food preferences 294–5
hunting 246, 258, 310–11, 390
imitation studies 297
imprinting 279–81
individual recognition 364
innovation 307–8
insight learning 67–8
instinctive behaviour 3, 240–3, 270–2
intuitive knowledge 5–6
kamikaze training 17–18
language use 328–9, 337–9
mate choice copying 295
migration 106–7
mimicking 290
numerical competence 213–17, 223–4
object permanence 134–5, 136
pecking technique 268–9
predator recognition 251–3
sexual imprinting 282–3
sign stimuli 247–8, 248
social learning 294–5, 297, 306
song dialects 317–18
spatial navigation 116, 119, 120
string-drawing problem 194–6
supernormal stimulus 248
tool use 189–91, 196, 278, 306
visual lateralisation 245
see also individual class or species
birdsong 270–2, 290
bits of information 351, 352, 354–5
blue jays 98–9, 196
bluegill sunfish 257, 258
bonobos 335–7, 410
bowerbirds 240–1, 247
brain
protein synthesis in 74
seasonal changes 82
brain research 20–2, 24–7
Brave New World 15
breeding cooperatively 385–90
brood parasites 283
brush turkeys see megapodes
budgerigars 297
bumble-bees 111, 146, 147, 165–6
bundle task 197, 200, 201, 203
butterflies 106
canaries 124
capuchin monkeys
language behaviour 323
list learning 169–70
social learning 301
theory of mind 405, 406, 409
tool use 188, 191–2
cardinal principles 211, 223–4
Cartesian grid tests 129–31
caste division 377–85
categorisation 142–3, 154–8
cats 13, 125–6, 136, 309–10
causal reasoning 205–9
causal relationships problem 204–5
celestial bodies 110–11
central coding, selective perception 244–5
cephalopods 77–9
cerebellum 21
cerebral cortex 21, 85–6
chaining, in memory 169
Chantek, orang-utan 333
cheetahs 310
chickadees 264
chickens
detour problem 124
equipotentiality problem 65
food calls 349
innate behaviour 237
pecking order 393–4
transposition test 57–8
chicks
imprinting 124, 279
maturation and practice 268–9
newly hatched 5–6, 8
predator recognition 251
selective associations 65
sign stimuli 248
size discrimination 158
social learning 294
visual lateralisation 245
children see human children
chimpanzees
abstraction 162
anticipation 93, 94
categorisation by 161
cognitive ability 233–4
cognitive mapping 118
concurrent discrimination 149
conditional discrimination 147–8
culture 314, 315–16
deception by 402–3
delayed response behaviour 90, 92
emulation learning 291–2
extrapolation 126
false-belief tests 406
gaze-following 400
imitation 296–7, 298
inference 168, 170
information transfer 129
kin recognition 374–5
language use 323–4, 331–7
male call dialects 317
matching to sample 149–50
novel behaviour 305–6, 307
numerical abilities 212, 224, 226–7
physical forces understanding 206–7
problem-solving 67, 177–80, 192, 193–4, 196
tubes 197–202, 204–5
proportions and volumes 218
role-taking/reversal 405–6
seeing-is-knowing tests 404–5
self-awareness 407
social intelligence 396, 397
speech difficulty 330
token reinforcement 51, 54
tool use 29, 187–92, 205, 315–16
visual discrimination 236
see also individual name
choice 146–7, 172
chunking, list learning 168–9
cichlid fish 247
circling behaviour 114–15
circus training 17, 47, 50–1, 236–7
classical behaviourism 11–16
classical conditioning 36, 43–5, 80, 238–9
Clever Hans study 7
clicker-training 50–1
cockroaches 184
cognitive abilities 233–6, 321–2
cognitive behaviour
social learning 296–302
tool use and 191–209
cognitive development 31, 136, 192
cognitive dissonance 135
cognitive ethology 19, 32, 36
cognitive mapping 118–31
detour tests 123–5
extrapolation 125–8
in learning 31–2, 66
navigation by 129
short-cutting 121–3
cognitive potential 233–6
cognitive psychology 32
cognitive specialisation 250, 259–61
cognitive tests, learning set formation 58
cognitivism 31–2
colour discrimination
in abstraction 162
in categorisation 156–7, 160
in imagery 165–6
tool functional features 208–9
colour proportions 218
colour vision 35, 114–15
communication 36, 321–2, 325
dialects in 317–18
food location 323–4, 391
information theory 351–2
proto-counting 219–22, 227–9
see also language; speech
communication systems 358
comparative ethology 5
compasses, in piloting 110–11
compensation, after brain injury 22
computer, lexigrams on 334–5
concept formation 142–3, 152–4
conceptual categorisation 154–5
concurrent discrimination 146, 149, 235
conditional discrimination 145–51, 214
conditional reinforcement 50–1, 92
conditioned reactions 56
conditioned reflexes 12, 21, 23
conditioned stimulus (CS) 43–5
conditioning 15, 39–40, 56–63
configuration theory 59–60
connectionism 13
consciousness of the self 407–10
consequences, schedules of 49–50
consolidation 26, 74, 87–8
contagious behaviour 290, 295
context, experimental 236
controlled procedures 7
cooperative behaviour 375–6
breeding 371, 385–90
brood care 370–1
coordinates of objects 130–2
coordinations, in intelligence 272–8
coping behaviour 308
copying behaviour 289–90
corpora pedunculata 79–81
Corvidae
dimensionality test 138
see also individual species
cotton-top tamarins 136, 193, 207–9, 387–8, 407
counting 211–12, 218–24
courtship displays 240, 241, 245–6
crayfish 52
creativity, language in 328
cross-fostering 267–72
mimicking and imitation 299
sexual imprinting 282
sign language 331–3
vocalisations 348
crossbills 293
crows
behavioural traditions 305
counting by 223–4
greater array discrimination 215–17
reasoning about physical forces 207–8
tool use 190–1, 278, 306
tube-trap problem 205
crucibles of culture 314–17
Crustacea 52, 385
cuckoos 248, 283
culture 313–19
language 317–18, 328–9, 332
dance language 35, 129, 240, 317, 328, 343–6
danger information 238–9, 295–6
Darwin, Charles 4–5, 6
Darwin, Erasmus 4
dead reckoning 108–9
dear enemy hypothesis (DEH) 365
deception 402–3
decision-making 96–7, 106–7, 145
delayed conditioning 56–7
delayed reaction tests 89–92, 135
delayed response behaviour 86, 121
deprivation experiments 233, 268, 271, 272, 273–8
depth-rotation orientation 164
Descartes, René 3, 20–1
detached representation 163
detour tests 121, 123–5, 235
Development Hypothesis, The 4
developmental studies
animal intelligence 267–78
object permanence 132–3
dialects 317–18, 345, 346
dichromatic/monochromatic concept 160
dictionaries, primate language 323, 346–50
digger wasps 109–10, 125, 242–3
dimensionality problem-solving 136–8
directional cues 120
discreteness in language 327–8
discrimination concept 152
discrimination learning 39, 57–60
discrimination tasks 167–8, 171, 234, 236
discriminative learning set (DLS) 181
disillusionment 94
disinhibition 61
disinterested learning 183
disorientation test 113–14
displacement, in language 328
disuse, law of 46
‘do-as-I-do’ test of imitation 296–7
dogs
conditioned reflex 12
deprivation and learning ability 233
detour tests 124–5, 301
dimensionality test 137
extrapolation 125–6
gate-opening 8, 206
human–dog communication 341
innate behaviour 236
kamikaze training 17
neurosis, experimental 44, 57
object permanence 136
remembering 72
role hierarchy 394
sheepdogs 8, 238
social attachment 283
stereotypical learning 256
string-drawing problem 195
visual cues 400–1
wild 349, 387
dolphins
acoustic signals 324, 342–3
behavioural traditions 305
cross-modal transfer 168
delayed matching to sample 91
dimensionality test 138
learning sets 182
linguistic comprehension 339–41
mirror tests 408
numerosity pairing tests 215, 217
reinforcement 51–2, 53–4
tool use 316–17
dominance 301, 393–6
dominanta 55
dormant behaviour 306–7
dragonflies 246
drive-reduction theory 55
ducks 5–6, 279–83
echoic memory 74
ecology
intelligence and 261–6
social learning and 292–6
effect, law of 46–7
egocentric space 119, 120
eidetics 73
electrophysiology, nervous system 21
elephants
concurrent discrimination 235
imprinting-like behaviour 282
individual recognition 366–7
means–end problem 192
mimicking acoustic signals 290
tool use 187
visual cues 401–2
emulation 291–2, 296, 299–301
English, intermediary language 337–9
engram 25–7, 85
environmental cues 249, 273, 308
epilepsy studies 22, 26
episodic memory 75–6, 81–3
equipotentiality 22, 25, 64, 65
errorless discrimination training 146
essential activities of intelligence 141–3
estimation, numbers 211, 214–18
ethogram 36
ethologists 231–2
ethology 34–7
eusociality 369–71, 373, 377–85
evolution 372–6
evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 256–8
evolutionism 4–5
exercise, law of 46
expectancy, in insight 67
expectancy violation paradigm 207–9
experiences
in innate behaviour 249
in problem-solving 178–9, 178–80
in species-specific behaviour 309
in tool use 205–6
experimental ethology 5
explicit (declarative) memory 75, 92
exploratory learning 31, 66–7, 182–5, 299
extinction, associative learning 61–2
extradimensional shifts (EDS) 148
extrapolation 125–8, 164
falcons 246, 283
false-belief tests 406–7
farming, sexual imprinting uses 283
fear-relevant objects 253, 307
feeding decisions 97
feeding methods 303–5
field-based studies 314
filial imprinting 280–1
finches 190, 205, 271, 295, 328–9
fish
auditory signals 35, 327
behavioural specialisation 258
cleaning interactions 240
cognition 236
colour vision 35
comparative imitation 301
evolutionarily stable strategies 257–8
innovative behaviour 308
mate choice copying 295
mirror tests 409–10
sign stimuli 247, 249
social learning 293, 295–6
spatial information 112
see also individual species
fixed action patterns 245–7, 272–8
fixed interval reinforcement 50
fixed ratio reinforcement 50
flexibility 106, 113, 241–3
flies 246
flight paths 121
fody 251–2
food aversion learning 64–5
food caching behaviour 262–6, 267
memory in 72, 81–3, 136
pilfering from 265–6
spatial navigation 116, 119
foraging
information exchange 343–6, 352–5, 384
mapping behaviour 105
proto-counting 219–22
public information 301–2
self-control and 95–100
social learning in 293–5
systems 234–5, 291, 303–5
forebrain size 308
foresight test 199, 204–5
foxes 126–8, 270
Frank, chimpanzee 149
frequency of stimulus 307
functional systems 55
future events, anticipation 93–5
Galen 3
Gardner, R Allen and Beatrice T 331–2
gaze-following 400
geese 247, 279–80, 308
gene dominance, altruism and 373
generalisation, in discrimination learning 58–60
generalisation gradient 59
generalising abstraction 158
generational overlap 370–0
genetic basis
in adaptation 191
in behaviour 36, 254–5, 346
dialects 317–18
geometric reasoning 137–8
geometric relations, in piloting 109–10
Georgia, chimpanzee 305–6
Gestalt theory 28–31, 40, 58, 85
gesture languages 331–4
go–no-go procedure 92, 146, 153
go signal 92
goal-directed behaviour 31, 54–5, 121–8, 130–2
gorillas 162, 333, 408
‘grandma’s rule’ 55
gray-breasted jays 386–7
greater array discrimination 215–17
grebes 245
Griffin, grey parrot 135
ground squirrels 367–8, 374
Gua, chimpanzee 161
guided (selective) learning 66, 250
gulls 268–9
guppies 295, 308
H-tool task 197
habituation 41–2, 62
Hampton Court maze, as model 9
hamsters 122, 238
hawks 390
Hebb, Donald 25–6, 74
hedonism 226–7
herons 190
herring 295–6
herring gulls 124, 248, 308
heterogeneous summation, law of 248
hidden objects, search for 133–4
hierarchies, social 301, 393–6
hippocampus 82–3, 84–5, 119–20, 265
Hippocrates 3
historical studies 3–10
holding capacity property 137–8
holistic theory, memory storage 85
homing
brain morphology 79–80, 84–5
mapping behaviour 104, 105, 111
olfactory navigation 107–8
honeybees
abstraction 159–60
castes 379–80
colour discrimination 57
counting landmarks 218–19
dance language 35, 317, 328, 343–6
foraging 99–100, 105
inherited behaviour vs. learning 255
memory 79–81
navigation 105, 114–15, 121, 129
set of releasers 249
short-cutting 122–3
horses
Clever Hans 7
cognitive ability 234
discrimination 158–9, 182, 235
hypothesis production 51
imprinting human–foal 283
hospitalism 281–2
Hugin, raven 403
humans
altruism 372–3, 374
attentional processes 62–3
cognitive tests 58
discrimination testing 146
individual recognition 364
language 318, 325–6, 327–9
memory 73–6
training 51, 52
human adults
fears and phobias 250, 253
fixed action patterns 246
mental rotation tasks 163–4
human-aided solutions 179, 196
human children
categorisation 161
cognitive development 31
cross-fostered by animals 299
extrapolation 128
false-belief 406–7
imitation 297, 298–9
navigation 114
numerical competence 212, 224–6
object permanence 132
perspective-taking 400
relational matching 172
seeing is knowing 404
self-awareness 407
theory of mind 399
human facial features, discrimination by birds 156–7
human health, behaviour modification 18
human infants
acoustic stimuli 42
baby tender 18
categorisation 161
chimpanzees compared 30
conditioning, Little Albert study 15
imprinting-like behaviour 281–2
memory 87
numerical competence 212
object permanence 136
speech discrimination 326
support problem 192
hunger, motivation 55
hunting behaviour
by birds 308
fixed action patterns 246, 274–8
social learning 306, 309–11
specialisation 390
Huxley, Aldous 15
hydrostatic pressure 112
hyenas 367, 397–8
hypothesis production 51
hypothesis-testing 181–2
iconic memory 74
identity concept 167, 171
idiothetic orientation 109
idiots savants 73
‘if–then’ rule 150
image motion, self-induced 109
imagery (mental representation) 163–6
imitation 9, 289–90, 296–7, 311
immediate memory see short-term memory (STM)
Imo, macaque 304
implicit (non-declarative) memory 75
imprinting 5–6, 68, 124, 279–86
impulsiveness 95–100
individual cognitive variability 233–6
individual recognition 364–9
infants see human infants
inference 132–4, 170–1
information theory 351–2, 358–9
information transfer 323–4
in foraging 384
language behaviour 325–9
numerical skills 219–22, 227–9
rate of 352–5
treasure maps 128–31
see also dance language
ingenuity 51–2
inheritance, in behaviour 231–2, 293
inhibition 23, 62
innate behaviour
aphid-milking 274
early experience 267–72
predator recognition 251–3
role of 267
rules of 254–5
tool use 311
in training 236–9
vocalisations 348
innate complex patterns 272–8
innate learning, imprinting 279–85
innate releasing mechanisms 309
innately guided learning 250
innovations 306–9
cultural changes 314–17
experiments 207–8
spread 303, 309, 311–12
innovators, characteristics 307–9
insect fishing
by birds 190–1
by primates 187, 188–9, 311, 315, 316
insects 6
adaptation learning 259–61
altruism 129
colour vision 35
concept formation 355
eusociality 369–70, 378–82
homing 111
hunting 258, 274–8, 306
individual recognition 365–6
inherited behaviour vs. learning 255
innovative behaviour 308
landmark counting 218–22
language of 355–7
mapping behaviour 111, 120–1
migration 106
navigation 108–9, 120–1
number system 219–22
public information 301–2
rate of information transmission 352–5
ritualisation 246
sign stimuli 249
social imprinting 284
social learning 306
soldier caste 377–85
see also individual class or species
insight 177–85
learning 29, 67–8, 180–1
in learning classes 39–40
in problem solving 9–10, 206
instinct 14, 35
instinctive behaviour
complexity of 240–3
intelligence and 272–8
vs. learned 231–2, 236–9, 254–6
instinctive drift 237–8
instrumental conditioning 13, 45–7
intellectual skills 141–3, 236
intelligence
advanced level 175–6
complex social interactions 396–8
complexity 411
development of 267
discrimination learning 145
essential activities 141–3
instinctive behaviour 272–8
sacrifice of 385–90
tool use 191–209
intelligence testing
of animals 58
of humans 30
intelligent behaviour 10
intelligent communication 321–2
intentionality 399
interchangeability, in language 327
intermediary languages 39, 330, 337–9
gesture 331–4
intermediate language 7
International Ethological Conferences 32–3
interspecies social learning 301–2
intradimensional shifts (IDS) 148–9
introspective psychology 10, 11
invertebrates
exploratory learning 183–5
individual recognition 365–6
maze learning 77
memory 76
training 52
see also crayfish; Crustacea; insects
Ioni, chimpanzee 30, 58, 161, 168
jackdaws 213–14
Jacob, raven 213
jays 265–6
see also blue jays; gray-breasted jays; scrub jays
jumping stand 145, 150
juncos 264
kamikaze animals 17
Kamin effect 75
Kanzi, bonobo 335–7, 410
Kashtanka 72
Kaspar Hauser experiments 268, 271, 272, 273–8
kin selection 373–4
kinaesthetic visual matching 296–7
knowledge, and behaviour 231–2
knowledge attribution 403–7
Köhler, Otto 212–14
Köhler, Wolfgang 29, 32
detour tests 123–4
on insight 177–8, 179
transposition test 57–8
Koko, gorilla 333
laboratory-based studies, advantages 314
labour division, in cooperative breeding 386–90
Lada, chimpanzee 180
Ladygina Koths, Nadezhda 24, 30
cross-modal inference 168
matching to sample 58
tool use 188
tube problem 197–202
lake experiment
bees 129
chimpanzees 180, 205
Lana, chimpanzee 224, 334–5
landmarks
counting 218–22
mapping 114–15, 116
in piloting 109–10
language
defined 327–9
evaluation of 355–7
function 12
intermediary 330
social use of 335
language behaviour 321–2
language-training experiments 330–41
languages
artificial 334–7
gesture 331–4
token 330–1
Lashley, Carl 22, 25
Lashley jumping stand 145, 150
latent inhibition 62
latent learning 31, 66–7, 182–5, 299
learned behaviour
conditioned reflex 12
fixed action patterns in 273
rules of 255–6
vs. instinctive 236–9, 254–6
learning
associative 42–54
in behaviour 231–2, 247, 313–14
cognitive map 31–2
ethological approaches 34–7
extinction as process in 61–2
laws in 46–7
memory in 24–7, 77–8, 79–81
motivation in 54–5
neural mechanisms 20–3
predator recognition 251–3
reinforcement in 16–17
in vocal usage 348
learning and perception 28–31
learning classes 39–40, 64–9
learning curve 10
learning preparedness 250–4
learning sets 146, 181–2
formation 58, 175–6, 235–6
learning skills, hierarchy 143
learning to learn 146, 181–2
leaves, as tools 188, 315
lemurs 403
lexigrams 334
lifestyle, and problem-solving 234
lions 210, 390
list learning 168
Little Albert study 15
lizards 257, 325, 370
Lloyd Morgan’s law 7–8
localiser (mosaic) theory 85
long-lasting learning 284
long-term memory (LTM) 26, 41, 74–5, 78
Lorenz, Konrad 34, 35–6
Loulis, chimpanzee 332
love (romantic) 62–3
LTM see long-term memory (LTM)
Lubbock, John 6
macaques
expectancy violation tests 208
innovation 305, 315
social relationships 394, 395, 396–7
tube problem 203
Machiavellian intelligence 396
magnetic fields in navigation 106, 110–11, 129
magpies 126, 136
mammals
acoustic signals 342–3
altruism 373
behavioural traditions 304–5, 309–10
complex social systems 370–1
cooperative behaviour 387–90
dimensionality test 137–8
individual recognition 366–7
inherited disposition 293
navigation 112
nepotism 374
triggering dormant behaviour 306–7
see also individual class or species
manipulation, in tool use 207–9
many/few discrimination 214–15
mapping 104, 111, 114–17, 118–31
marginal-value theorem 97
marine mammals see individual species
marine sponges 316–17, 385
marmosets 148, 297–8, 387–8
marsh tits 262
mass action principle 22, 25, 85
matching to sample (MTS) 58
delayed 90–1
discrimination in 148
in estimation 214
numerical competence 212–13
relational 171–2
in rule learning 149–51
transitive inference 170–1
mate choice copying 282, 295
maternal imprinting 280
mating strategies 257
maturation 136, 268–9, 310–11
maze tests 6, 13–14
cognitive ability 254
communication 234
imagery 165
latent learning 31, 66, 182–5
navigation 113, 119, 122
numerical ability 219–22, 227
mazes
binary tree 352–5
circular 122, 234
radial 95, 113, 119
T-shaped 77
Y-shaped 13–14, 165, 259–61
meaning, in intelligence 143
means–end relationships 192–6
meerkats 117, 349–50, 388–90
megapodes 241–3, 252–3, 283–4, 294–5
memory 71–2, 73–7
bees 79–81
cephalopods 77–8
consolidation 87–8
delayed reaction test 56–7
post-training modulation 77
serial 168
memory trace 24–7
mental representation 163–6
mental rotation 163–6
mental time-travel hypothesis 93
Mercury, chimpanzee 224
messages 227, 323–4
metabolic rate 97
mice 365
migration 104, 105–7
mimicking 290
Mind, Theory of 399–411
minnows 296
mirror-image forms 163–4
mirror test 407–8
modality 167–8
molluscs 52, 77–9
see also snails
momentary maximising 97
momentum 164
monkeys
abstraction 162
cooperative breeding 387–8
delayed reaction tests 90, 91
dimensionality test 137
expectancy violation tests 207–9
fear shaping 253
innovation 305, 315
learning sets 181–2, 236
list learning 169–70
matching-to-sample 92
mimicking 290
mirror test 407
nepotism 374
numerical abilities 212, 222–3, 226
object permanence 136
problem-solving 188, 193, 203, 204
role-taking/reversal tasks 406
social intelligence 397
social learning 301
tool use 188, 191–2
vocalisations 272, 323, 346–50
see also apes; individual species
Morgan, Lloyd 7–8
motion-based prey detection 243–4
motivation
in conditioning 54–6
detour tests 124
in foraging 96–7
in imitation 301
latent learning 66, 183
motor skills, memory in 75
moundbirds 241–3
movement
extrapolation 125–6
perception of 29, 133
Müller, Johannes Peter 21
multi-bearings hypothesis 116–17
multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) 153
multiple memories 80
mushroom bodies (MBs) 79–81
naked mole rats 370–1, 382–5, 390–2
natural concept formation 160–3
natural selection 4–5, 17, 256
naturalistic observations 5–6
navigation 105–17, 120
nepotism 374
nest-building 240–3
nestmate recognition 365
neurons 22, 24
of cephalopods 78
interconnections 25–7, 46–7
plasticity 85
neurophysiology, history 20–3
neurosis, experimental 44, 57
neutral stimuli (NS) 43–4
Nim, chimpanzee 333
nonsense syllables 25
novel feeding techniques 303–5
novel stimulus, reaction to 61–2, 64–5
novel traits, imprinting on 282–3
number sense
human infants 225–6
see also numerosity
number systems 219–22, 224
numerosity 210–12, 214–18, 222–3
nutcrackers (birds) 116, 119, 262–3, 264–5
object permanence 132–5, 135–9
observational conditioning 291
observational learning 296–302
oddity concept 167
olfactory cues
in navigation 107–8, 111
social use 60, 284, 368
On the Origin of Species 4–5
one-to-one principle 211
operant conditioning 16–18, 45–54, 237
optic flow 109, 122
orang-utans 316, 333
ordering 168–70
ordinality principle 211, 222–3
orienting response 61–2
ospreys 310–11
owls 190
oystercatchers 258
paired/non-paired concept 160
panic 295
parent/offspring interaction 267–8, 309–11
Paris, chimpanzee 192, 193–4, 196, 197–202
parrots
counting 223
inherited behaviour vs. learning 255
language skills 134, 223, 318, 337–9
mimicking 290
object permanence 134–5, 136
social learning 299–301
string-drawing problem 194–6
see also Alex; Griffin
parsimony, law of 8
patch-use tests 97–8
path integration 108–9, 122
Pavlov, Ivan 11–13
classical conditioning 43–4, 48
extinction of reaction 61
generalisation gradient 59
insight behaviour 180
memory storage 85
reflexology 23–4
stimulus discrimination 57
Pepperberg, Irene 337–9
perception
and learning 28–31
object permanence 133–4
selective 244–5
perspective-taking 400–2
pheromones 107, 378–9, 383
phi phenomenon 29
physical forces, reasoning about 206–7
Piaget, Jean 31, 132, 212
pictures 156–8, 161–2
pigeons
abstraction 162
anticipation 94–5
categorisation 155–8
colour proportions 218
conditioned reactions 56
danger cues 239
delayed matching to sample 90–1
discrimination tests 150–1
homing 84–5, 110, 121
hypothesis production 51
impulsiveness 98
insight in problem-solving 178–9
learning predisposition 251
list learning 169
mental rotation tasks 163–5
navigation 107–8, 110
numerical competence 213, 224
Pavlovian conditioning 47–8
same/different concept 153
symmetry concept 159
training 17–18, 47, 238
triggering dormant behaviour 307
pigs 237, 403
pilfering avoidance hypothesis 265–6
piloting 109–10
plasticity, neuronal changes 85
pluralism, in societies 256–66
poisoning, avoidance 64–5, 293
polyethism 377–85
population-specific behavioural traditions 303–6
positive consequences, behaviourism 13
positive reinforcement 50–4
post-training memory modulation 77
prairie dogs 349
precocial animals 267–8
precocial birds 279–81
predator recognition 251–4
dialect discrimination 318
instinctive reactions 5–6, 8
public information 295–6
social learning 290, 291, 292
vocal warnings 346–9
predatory behaviour 77, 309–11
predictability 65
prediction 93–5
prefrontal cortex 86, 87, 146
Premack principle 55
preparedness, in learning 250–4
prey detection 243–4
primates
behavioural traditions 304, 315
deception by 402
extrapolation 128
gesture languages 331–4
maternal separation 281–2
problem-solving 191–3, 196
social intelligence 396
tool use 188–91, 311
insect fishing 187, 188–9, 311, 315–16
vocalisations 272, 346, 348, 349
problem-solving
cephalopods 77
early studies 9–10
insight in 67, 177–9
specialisation for 234
tool use and 191–209
productivity, in language 328
proportions, judgement of 218
prospective memory 94
protein synthesis, in LTM 87–8
proto-counting 218–22
prototype effect 154, 156
pseudo-insight 178
public information 292, 293, 295–6, 301–2
punishment 47–9
purposeful behaviour 55
purposive action 10
puzzle boxes 8–9, 13, 45–7
quails 124, 238–9, 295
quantities, knowledge of 210–12
queen caste 379–83
rabbits 283, 373
Rafael, chimpanzee 180, 205
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago 22, 24–5
ranking, intelligence in 393–6
rate of reinforcement 53–4
rats
anticipation by 94
behavioural traditions 305
discrimination tests 148, 150
individual recognition 365
innate abilities 238–9
latent learning 66, 182–3
learning predisposition 251
maze learning 31, 254
maze tests 9, 95, 119
navigation 109, 113–14, 119
operant conditioning 48–9
poisoning avoidance 64–5, 293
relative reinforcements 55–6
social learning 293–4
species-specific learning 234–5
ravens 213, 349, 403
reasoning
about physical forces 206–7
transitive inference 170–1
recency, law of 46
receptive field, of toads 244
reciprocity 375, 388
redundancy, spatial information 111–14
reference memory see long-term memory (LTM)
reflex movements 14
reflex theory 20–1
reflexology, branches of 23–4
reinforcement 16–17, 47–56, 64, 96
relation concepts 167
relational matching-to-sample 171–2
relative numerousness judgements 211
releasers 247–9
remembering 71–2
reminiscence about a stimulus 56–7
reorientation task 113–14
repetition, in learning 61
reproductive caste 370–1
reproductive fitness 373
reptiles
extrapolation tests 128
see also lizards; salamander larvae
response facilitation 291
response–stimulus (R–S) 48
retention interval 91
retrospective memory 89–92
reversal shift training 148–9
reverse tube problem 203
reward 16, 80, 94
Reznikova, Zhanna
adaptation learning 259–61
ant maze construction 6
fixed action patterns 273–8
information transfer 129–31, 352–5
latent learning 184–5
navigation strategies 105, 112, 113
numerical skills 219–22, 227–9
prediction study 95
sign stimuli 248
simultaneous discrimination 146, 147
social learning 301–2
rhesus monkeys
fear shaping 253
language behaviour 323
numerical competence 212, 222–3, 226
social intelligence 397
rigidity experiments 207
Rio, sea lion 171
ritualisation 36, 46, 205–6, 245, 256
robot bee experiment 344–5
Rocky, sea lion 341
rodents
as altricial animals 267–8
exploratory learning 183
see also mice; naked mole rats; rats
role-taking/reversal 405–6
rotational transformation 164–6
rote-learning 151
route marking 112
rule learning 145–51
salamander larvae 374
Sally-Ann test 406–7
same/different concept 152–4, 155
Sanford, Edmund Clark 9, 13
Sarah, chimpanzee 226, 405–6
scanning behaviour 115
schedule of reinforcement 53–4
schedules of consequences 49–50
schizophrenia 87
screen tests, extrapolation 126–8
scrub jays 81–3, 311–12, 386, 403
sea lions 171, 340–1
sea otters 187–8
seals 284, 318
seasonal changes, brain morphology 82
second-order conditioning 56
secondary reinforcement 50–1, 92
seeing is knowing 404–5
selective associations 65–6
selective perception 243–5
self, concept of 76
self-awareness 407–10
self-control, foraging and 95–100
self-determination, birds 283–4
semantic memory 75–6
semantic vocalisations 323, 346–50
semanticity, in language 328
sensations, in perception 29
sensitisation 41–2
sensory memory 73–4
sensory organs, of cephalopods 78
sensory preconditioning 44
sensory system, perception in 21
serial conditioning 44
serial learning 168–70
serial recognition 170
sexual imprinting 282–3
shapes
in categorisation 156–7, 158–9
discrimination 148–9, 162, 208–9
shaping behaviour 17, 52
Sheba, chimpanzee 226
sheep 366–7
sheepdogs 8, 238
shell-game test 135
Sherrington, Charles Scott 24
short-cutting 121–3
short sticks task 197, 202, 203
short-term memory (STM) 26, 41, 74, 168–70
shrimps 370, 385
sign language 30–1, 325–6, 331–4
sign stimuli 35, 245, 247–9
signals of animals 342–50
simultaneous chaining procedure 169
simultaneous discrimination 146
size discrimination 158–9, 162
sketch map 120
Skinner, Burrhus Frederic (‘B. F.’) 9, 20, 96
Skinner box 9
Skinnerian behaviourism 16–19, 237
Skinnerian conditioning 47–54
slave-making ants 269–70
smell see olfactory cues
snails 76, 79
snapping shrimps 370, 385
snapshot matching 120–1
social cues 400–1
social experience 275, 278
social facilitation 290–1
social imprinting 282–4, 285
social intelligence 361–71, 396–8
hierarchies in 393–6
information transfer 128–31, 227
social learning 289–92, 319
cognitive aspects 287–8, 296–302
in culture 304–6, 313–17
ecological aspects 292–6
social navigation 364
social specialisation 377–92
social systems 363–8, 369–71
social use of language 335
Sofia, dog 341
soldiers, caste 377–85
Soviet Union, research centres 13, 23
Spalding, Douglas 5–6
sparrows 212, 271, 308, 317
spatial experience 103–17
spatial information, redundancy 111–14
spatial intelligence 139
spatial localisation 94–5, 123–4
spatial memory 82–3, 84–7, 264
spatial navigation 103–4, 116, 119
specialisation
in language 327
team working 390–2
species-specific behaviour 231–2, 267–72
acoustic codes 342–50, 348
fixed action patterns 245–7, 272–8
food storing 263–5
latent learning 184–5
object permanence 136
tutoring in 309–11
variability 233–6
speech 14–15, 17, 22, 325–7
physical difficulties 330
subvocal (thinking) 15
Spencer, Herbert 4
spiders 370
sponges, marine 316–17, 385
spontaneous recovery 61
springtail-catching 274–8
squirrel monkeys 162, 236
squirrels 183, 269, 272
ground 367–8, 374
starlings 107–8, 293
stereotyped behaviour 245–7, 256
stick problem 67, 177, 196
sticklebacks
auditory signals 327
fixed action pattern 272
innate abilities 238
sign stimuli 247, 249
social learning 293
sticks/twigs, as tools 187–9
stimuli
in conditioning 43–4
habituation to 41–2
learned sequence 169
stimulus discrimination 57–8, 91
stimulus enhancement 56–7, 291, 305, 311, 315–16
stimulus filtering 243–5
stimulus generalisation 58–60, 142
stimulus-response psychology 11, 14
stimulus–stimulus (S–S) learning 44
STM see short-term memory (STM)
stones, as tools 187–8, 189–90, 315
stress, imprinting and 280
string-drawing problem 192, 193–6
stroboscope 28–9
subitising 211
substitution 133–4
successive discrimination 146
suddenness 178, 179, 180
Sultan, chimpanzee 29, 177–8, 179
sun, in navigation 110, 111, 129
supernormal stimuli 248
survival advantage 231–2
bolt-hole mapping 117
exploratory behaviour 66, 183
foraging 96–7, 101
imprinting 68
nestlings’ supernormal stimulus 248
object permanence 135
predator recognition 295–6
spatial navigation 103–4
‘survival of the fittest’ 4–5
swifts 107
symbolic languages 224, 331, 334, 345
symmetry concept 159
synapse theory 24
synaptic changes 74, 79, 88
tactile identification 365–6
tactual oddity learning 167–8
take-most-profitable rule 97, 99
Taras, chimpanzee 206
task learning 16
taste aversion training 78
teaching, by animals 309– 312
team working 390–2
temporal lobes 26
termites 381
texture 156–7
Theory of Mind 399–411
thinking, subvocal speech 15
Thorndike, Edward Lee 8–9, 13
thrushes 247
time, behaviour and 89–101
timing of reinforcement 53
Tinbergen, Niko 35–6, 109, 231–2, 251
Tinklepaugh, O. L. 89–90
tits (birds) 252, 262, 304
toads 243–4, 374
token language 330–1
token reinforcement 51, 54
Tolman, Edward Chase 31–2, 66, 118, 122, 183
Tony, dog 8, 206
tool use 186–91
by cephalopods 77
cognitive behaviour 191–209
culture in 306, 315–16
emulation 291–2
insight learning 29, 67–8
ritual in 205
tradition, in language 328–9
training 17, 47, 50–1, 236–9
trajectory, extrapolation of 128
transfer tasks 148
transitive inference 170–1
transposition test 57–8
treasure maps 128–31
trial-and-error learning 13, 45–7
triangularity 158–9, 234
trophallaxis 273
tropisms 14
tube problem 196–205
tube-trap problem 204–5
tunnelling, team working 390–2
turn-back-and-look behaviour 115–16
turtles, loggerhead 106
tutoring 306–7, 309
two-action method 297
unconditioned response (UCR) 43–4
unconditioned stimulus (US) 43–5, 54
use, law of 46
variable ratio reinforcement 50
vector memories 123
vector programme 107
verbal retrieval 75
vervet monkeys 188, 272, 346–50, 397
vestibular system 109
vibration signals 344, 345
Vicki, chimpanzee 296–7, 330
viewpoint 183
violation trials 133–4, 164
visual cues 400–1
visual discrimination tasks 171, 234, 236
visual displacement tasks 133
visual identification 366
visual information
memory 74
mental rotation 163–6
in navigation 111, 114–15
processing 163–6
visual lateralisation 245
visual–spatial sense 213
visual stimuli 251
visual system, perception 244
vocal recognition, mother–offspring 284
vocalisations 326
dialects in 317–18
learning 290
primates 272
semantic 323, 346–50
see also birdsong; speech
volumes, proportions and 218
vultures 189–90
waggle dance signal 344
wallabies 253–4
warblers 107
Washoe, chimpanzee 331–2
wasps 192, 255, 355, 366
digger 109–10, 125, 242–3
water flow, spatial information 112
water for drinking, tool use 188, 315–16, 316
water shrew 255–6
Watson, John Broadus 12–15
weather patterns 106, 108, 111
Wertheimer, Max 28–9
WGTA see Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA)
whales 318
wild dogs 349, 387
win–stay/lose–shift strategy 181–2
Wisconsin Card Sorting Task 146
Wisconsin General Test Apparatus (WGTA) 91–2, 146, 155, 181–2
shortcomings 236
wisdom 287–8
wolves 137, 272, 342
woodlice 365–6
woodpeckers 387
workers, mole rat 383–4
working memory 74
wrasse 301
Yerkes, R. M. 30
Zuri, gorilla 162
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