The Household and the Making of History

Index

adolescence

   comparison in early- and late-marriage settings, 53–57

   in contemporary northern versus southern Europe, 250–56

   in medieval northwestern Europe, 71, 83, 92

   sexual behavior during, 57–64

   see also Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman; Bennett, Judith M.; Gillis, John R.; life-cycle domestic service; Hajnal, John; Hanawalt, Barbara; Laslett, Peter; McDonald, Michael; servants

adulthood and old age

   comparison in early- and late-marriage settings, 64–68

   widows and widowers, 66–67, 68; in Montaillou, 117; in Salem, 168–71

   see also early-marriage households; late-marriage households; sati; witch-hunts

agricultural societies

   constraints on sexual behavior in, 81 effects on sexual stratification in, 80 models of household formation in, 82

   origins of, 79–80

   see also early-marriage households; late-marriage households; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Amussen, Susan, An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modern England, 222–24

Astell, Mary, 225–27

authority

   concern about from late medieval era, 39

   connections between domestic and extra-domestic sites of, 202–41

   of fathers in Western family pattern, 65–66

   of husbands and wives in early- versus late-marriage settings, 66–67

   links between domestic and public, 218–31

   of popular religion in late medieval and early modern era, 213–15, 218

   search for credible bases of in late- marriage societies, 227–31

   of women in late-marriage households, 69; in seventeenth- century Salem Village, Chapter 4, 111–43; in Utopia, 68–69; in nineteenth-century late-marriage societies, 265–68

   see also early-marriage households; gender and power arrangements; late-marriage households

Bartlett, Robert, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonialization and Cultural Change, 89–90

Beik, William, Absolutism and Society in Seventeenth-Century France: State Power and Provincial Aristocracy in Languedoc, 227

Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England, 55–56

Bennett, Judith M., 60

   significance of medieval women’s purchase of marriage licences, 70–72

   Women in the Medieval English Countryside, 60n76, 45, 60

Bever, Edward, 171

Bossy, John, collapse of popular Catholicism in late eighteenth- century, 218

Boyer, Paul, and Nissenbaum, Stephen, Salem Possessed, 159–60

Braudel, Fernand, 1–2

Briggs, Robin, 165

Calvinism, 217

Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, 11, 16, 17, 24, 92, 233

   contrast with John Hajnal’s account of late-marriage pattern, 17, 21–22

   Family Forms in Historic Europe, 13, 26, 92–93; discussion of John Hajnal’s essay in this collection, “Two Kinds of Preindustrial Household Formation System,” 26

   findings since the late 1980s, 14–15

   Household and Family in Past Time, 13n29

   portrayal of nuclear household as centerpiece of the Western family pattern, 21, 25

   response to early critics, 13n30, 13

Catharism, see heresy

Catholicism

   alleged role in averting true patriarchy in western Europe, 98

   alleged role in creating late-marriage pattern, 85

   influence of in Montaillou heretical outbreak, 147–59

   response to sixteenth-century religious upheavals, 217–18

   upsurge in Catholic piety in late medieval era, 210–11

children and child-rearing practices

   childlessness compared in early- and late-marriage societies, 42

   congruity of experience for non-elite boys and girls in early modern England, 50

   early- and late-marriage societies compared, 48–53

   explanation for reduced liability for raising girls in late-marriage settings, 48

   French and English elites, 44

   naming practices in early- and late-marriage households, 45

   poorer classes in late-marriage households, 44

   see also adolescence; life-cycle domestic service

Coleman, Emily

   high male sex-ratios in ninth- century Saint-Germain des Prés, 96–98

   support for peasantry as creators of late-marriage pattern, 98

Cornell, Laurel L., 94–95

Cotton, John

   recommendation that victims marry their rapists, 136, 138

   spiritual mentor of Anne Hutchinson, 166

   on women, 112

cross-dressing, see gender and identity; gender and power arrangements

Davidoff, Leonore, and Hall, Catherine

   Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850, 257–58

Davis, Natalie, 238

   discussion of “Ghosts, Kin and Progeny: Some Features of Family Life in Early Modern France,” 103–9 on Protestantism and purgatory, 42 and reinterpreting the “woman- on-top,” 204–8

democracy, 31, 33, 219–22

   see political developments in early modern Europe

Dickmann, Mildred, 79n29, 79

Diefendorf, Barbara B., Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris, 217

early-marriage households, 7–8, 30, 33

   absence of need for couples’ economic independence at marriage, 28

   age at marriage of men in, 22

   care for older generation in, 26

   comparison with late-marriage households, 6, 34–69, 105–6; alleged contemporary convergence of, 280–82; greater longevity of than late-marriage households, 82; role of each in meeting common needs of agricultural societies, 82–84; in southern and northern contemporary Europe, 250–56

   description of, 6

   fertility control in, 84n41, 84

   gender roles and sexual hierarchy in, 51–53

   high male sex-ratios in, 22

   illegitimacy rates higher in than late-marriage households, 29

   longevity of, 30, 177

   marital fertility in, 43n21, 42–43

   planning for future less urgent in, 105

   see also adolescence, children and child-rearing practices; gender and power arrangements; Montaillou, rape and violence against women

elites

   feudal, 92–93, 99–100

   landed and commercial, 31

   strategies of, 245–48

Europe, northwestern

   comparison of middle- and working-class experience, 268–69

   as site of late-marriage pattern, 1, 3–5

   as site of major change introducing first “models for modernity,” 1, 243–50

   summary of thesis of region’s dynamism owing late-marriage system, 243–50

   trends in, 262–74

   see also late-marriage households; Tilly, Charles; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Evans, Richard J., 267

extra-domestic institutions

   courts, manorial, 90, 90n60, 91

   evolution of influenced by late-marriage households, Chapter 7, 202–41

   expansion of by modern era, 246

family

   altered theory and practice of in early-modern Europe, 107–8

   breakdown alleged, 38–39, 270–71

   comparison of weak and strong family regions of contemporary Europe, 250–56

   economic and social roles of in early modern England, 219–22

   members of late-marriage societies as agents of change, 104

   “uterine” families in China, 65

   see also adolescence; children and child-rearing practices; early- marriage households; late-marriage households; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

fertility

   comparative practices in premodern populations, 84n41, 84

   contemporary global trends, 280–82

   effort to limit fertility fails to explain Western family pattern, 84–85

   among nineteenth-century white American women, 266

   trends in contemporary southern and northern Europe, 254–55

   see also early-marriage societies; late-marriage societies; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Filmer, Robert, 20, 224–27

Flandrin, Jean-Louis, 58, 62

footbinding, 52, 52n54, 53

Fournier, Jacques, Bishop of Pamiers and later Pope Benedict XII, 114

Freud, Sigmund, 176, 180, 186, 196

gender and identity

   abandonment of gender as marker of identity, 265, 274–78

   comparison of manhood and womanhood in Salem, 173–75

   comparison of witchcraft and heresy as male strategies, 171–73

   confusion over owing to shifts in the sexual order, 282

   control of property and male identity, 127–29, 192–93

   cross-dressing, 204n8, 203–4, 207, 226

   difference over time in sexual attributes as components of identity, 194–95, 265, 274–78

   equality between the sexes “gendered male,” 282

   erosion in modern era of ingredients of manhood, 263

   explanation of sexual hierarchy favoring men, 193–97

   gender more salient to identity in Montaillou than Salem, 126–29, 159

   loss of perceived symmetry between bodies and social roles, 192

   male identity more derived from social activity, 193

   manhood and relationship to physical characteristics, 193

   manhood and womanhood as social constructs, 199–201

   middle-class men and doctrine of separate sexual spheres, 263–65

   revisionist feminist views on, 186–88

   see also gender and power arrangements

gender and power arrangements

   articulation of through theories favoring male dominance, 51

   assumptions about in northwestern European societies, 15–16

   carryover from domestic to public arenas, 202–41

   claims for by sociobiologists and psychologists, 182–88

   comparison of modern working- and middle-class experience, 267

   cross-dressing reinterpreted in early modern England and France, 202–8

   effects upon in late-marriage societies, 32

   as evidenced across evolutionary time, 197–201

   example of confusion over in colonial Salem in 1630, 165–66; in England, 38; in Utopia, 35, 36

   expansion of women’s domestic power in modern late-marriage societies, 265–74

   and exposure of early modern women to accusations of sexual immorality, 138–39

   and the “gender order” in the modern and contemporary era, 259–62

   as influenced by marriage and household systems, 34–38, 68; case study in Montaillou and Salem Village, Chapter 4, 111–43 and Chapter 5, 171, 197–201; case study in early modern England, 222–24

   and interpretations of the “woman-on-top,” 204–8

   among New England women singled out as witches from the 1640s, 168–71

   patriarchal reaction as response to growing proximity of sexes, 38–39, 68

   rape and gender violence, 132–42

   relative authority of husbands and wives in early- and late-marriage settings, 66–67, 108–9

   resolution of nineteenth-century interpretive impasse over, 262–68

   role of late-marriage system in generating novelties in, 4

   roots of household instability and men’s obsession with gender order, 38–39

   scholarship on influence of work roles upon, 236–41

   sexual hierarchy favoring males a variable, not a constant, 196

   status of gender arrangements in contemporary late-marriage societies, 249–50

   theoretical approaches to, 178

   trajectories of men’s and women’s lives in early- and late-marriage systems, 40

   and women’s shifting place in the “gender order,” 272–74

   see also gender and identity

Gilbert, W. S., H.M.S. Pinafore, 260

Gillis, John R., 57n70, 57

   A World of Their Own Making: Myth, Ritual and the Quest for Family Values, 271

Goldberg, P. J. P., Women, Work and Life Cycle in a Medieval Economy: Women in York and Yorkshire, 77–78

Good, Sarah

   background of, 170–71

   last words as convicted witch, 164

Goody, Jack

   as critic of theories of Western “difference,” 25n58, 25

   theory of “diverging devolution” of inheritance summarized, 81n36, 81

   theory of on Church and property challenged, 150

   theory on origins of late marriage in Europe, 85, 150

Gottlieb, Beatrice, 63

Gowing, Laura, Domestic Dangers: Women Words and Sex in Early Modern London, 138–39

Greven, Philip J., 126n29, 126, 221

Hajnal, John, 11, 14, 17, 20, 39, 40–41, 72, 77, 81, 96, 81n36, 109, 231

   contrast with Cambridge group in assessment of northwestern European marriage pattern, 17

   discoverer of late-marriage system in northwestern Europe, 5, 6, 8

   late-marriage as one of two household systems in agricultural societies, 78–79

   links between women’s postponed marriage and productive activity, 90

   Montaillou as example of “mixed” household system, 114

   summary of findings in major articles of 1965 and 1982, 21–27

   uniqueness of European pattern in high marriage age of women, 8, 16

   views on links between women’s work and economic change, 232–33

Hammer, Carl I.

   equal sex-ratios in ninth-century Bavaria, 96–98

   and thesis of Western family pattern masterminded by feudal elites, 92–93

Hanawalt, Barbara

   Growing Up in Medieval London, 43–44

   The Ties That Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England, 49–50, 60, 71

Hareven, Tamara, 10

heresy, Chapter 5, 171

   Catharism in Montaillou, 113, 116, 147–59

   comparison of witchcraft and heresy as male strategies, 171–73

   see also Hutchinson, Anne

Herlihy, David

   age at marriage of women and men in medieval Europe, 86–88, 88n54, 89

   Christianity credited for single sexual standard, 48n40, 48

   findings support hypothesis for origins of Western family pattern, 86–89

   and high male sex-ratios in ninth-century Saint-Germain des Pres, 96

history

   cultural, 5

   demographic, 5, 8; Demography (journal), 15–16; relationship between household size and industrialization, 12–13; see also Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure; Hajnal, John; Laslett, Peter

   family, 5, 9–10; comparison of family and women’s history, 8–9; status of family history in England, 7n15, 7–8

   social, 4, 5, 7, 8, 26

   Western, 4, 8

   women’s, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11; discussion of, 1960s through 1990s, 256–62

homosexuality, 33, 196, 280

households, nuclear, 6, 13, 14, 17–18, 29

   as central feature in Peter Laslett’s account of Western family pattern, 7, 8, 13, 19–20

   as comparable in size to multifamily households, 1

   explanation for dominance of in late-marriage societies, 99

   identity of over time difficult to maintain, 109

   industrialization not a causal factor of, 10, 11–12

   as sites of historical transformation, 105

   thesis statement on households and the making of history, 31–33

   see also early marriage households; late-marriage households; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Howell, Martha, 106

   The Marriage Exchange: Property, Social Place, and Gender in the Cities of the Low Countries, 1300–1550, 100–2

   Women, Production and Patriarchy in Late Medieval Cities, 237

Hrdy, Sarah B., 182–84

Huber, Joan, 80

Hunt, Margaret R., The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender and the Family in England, 1680–1780, 239–41

Hutchinson, Anne, excommunicated for heretical teachings, 166–67

illegitimacy, 64

   early modern Europe, 29

   among late medieval youth in England, 60n76, 60

   low rates in late-marriage societies, 60–61

   see also adolescence; Bennett, Judith; sex and sexuality

Illich, Ivan, 192

industrialization and economic change, 12, 17–18, 29, 33

   arguments for extra-domestic causal factors, 231–32

   exaggerated in causal analyses of change in modern era, 259

   as hypothesized effect of late- marriage pattern, 12–13, 12n27, 231–42

   and proto-industrialization, 235–36

   and recent scholarship on work and gender, 236–41

   and role of “middling” classes in England, 239–41, 247–48

   thesis of Alan Macfarlane, 17–18, 233–34

infanticide and neglect, female, 22, 24

   in China, 44n28, 42–43, 44–45

   evidence for in fourteenth-century Montaillou, 158–59

   in medieval ninth-century medieval France, 96–98

   in 1960s in northern India, 47–48

   in northwestern Europe, 43–44

   see also Hajnal, John; Sen, Amartya; son-preference

inheritance practices

   in agricultural societies, 10n21, 10; hoe and plow societies compared, 80–81

   in aristocratic England, 1300–1800, 247–48

   in determining household composition, 75n17, 73–75

   in early-marriage settings, 75

   as factor in son-preference, 40–48

   in late-marriage settings, 67–68, 83

   in medieval northwestern Europe, 73–75, 85, 86–89, 100–2

   in Montaillou, 118

Inquisition, 113, 115, 116

James Ⅵ and Ⅰ, and the cross-dressing controversy, 203–4, 207

Johnson, Kay Ann, Women, the Family and Peasant Revolution in China, 65

Jordon, William, 149

   The Great Famine, 149

Karlsen, Carol F.

   The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England, 165–66; summary of all New England witches from the 1640s, 168–71

Klaits, Joseph, 165

Ko, Dorothy

   Every Step a Lotus: Shoes for Bound Feet, 53n55, 53

   Teachers of the Inner Chambers: Women and Culture in Seventeenth- Century China, 52

Kussmaul, Ann, 54–55

Larner, Christina, 165

Laslett, Peter, 6, 14, 17, 26, 65, 77, 90

   assessment of life-cycle service, 56–57

   “Characteristics of the Western Family Considered over Time,” 19–20

   creator of term “Western family pattern,” 18–20

   on industrialization as effect of the Western family pattern, 12n27,

   key figure inspiring this study, 6n13, 6–7

   leader of Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure, 11

   on liberal political theory as effect of the Western family pattern

   view of paternal authority in Western family pattern contested, 65n88, 65–66

   views on origins of Western family pattern, 76

   The World We Have Lost, 6–7

   see also Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

late-marriage households, 29, 176

   age at marriage of men and women in early modern Europe, 22, 39n13, 39–40

   appearance of among rural and urban masses, 31

   as catalyst for change beyond households, 69

   as catalyst for industrial transformation, 12

   and change beyond households, 202–41

   as clue to near universality of gender hierarchy favoring men, 176–97

   comparison of middle- and working class experience, 268–69

   comparison with early-marriage households, 6, 34–69, 105–6

late-marriage households (cont.)

   decisions about when to marry, 54–55

   description of features, 6, 39

   evidence for continuing trend of parallel lives for sexes in modern era, 268–74

   evidence for in medieval England, 49n43, 49, 92–93, 96–98

   example from sixteenth-century England, 27–28

   as explanation for assessments of women in early modern era, 207

   as explanation for change in early modern era moving from households to the wider world, 209–10

   features of in ninth-century Carolingian Bavaria, 92–93

   fertility control in, 84n41, 84, 266, 269–70

   influence of in contemporary northern and southern Europe, 250–56

   influence of on political evolution of northwestern Europe, 218–31

   influence on living standards, 23

   influence on women’s independence and social agency, 26

   instability of, 33

   link between household governance in and extra-domestic democratic ideals, 218–19

   major focus of this study, 4, 5, 31–33, 176

   medieval coroners’ rolls and female and male activities, 49–50

   molders of collective experience and mentality in northwestern Europe,

   as one of two household formation models in agricultural societies, 78–84, 86

   origins of, 69, 70–110; see also Western (or northwestern European) family pattern, origins of; Hajnal, John

   re-marriage in late- and early-marriage households, 66–67, 68

   role of in shaping developments beyond households, 202–41

   role of women in, 8, 25–26, 34–69, 70–110

   sex-ratios in, 20–21

   shift from aberration to norm in contemporary global era, 30

   as source of early modern misogyny, 38

   and thesis of northwestern Europe’s dynamism, 243–50

   versatility of interpretive framework for other investigations, 279–84

   “Western” traits and qualities as normative behavioral requirements in late-marriage settings, 270

   see also adolescence; Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure; Catholicism; children and child-rearing practices; households, nuclear; industrialization and economic change; Laslett, Peter; life-cycle domestic service; political developments in early modern Europe; Protestantism; sex and sexuality; rape and violence against women; servants; Salem Village and Town; and Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Lee, James Z. and Wang Feng, One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities, 1700–2000, 43

LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel, 115

   chapters 4 and 5, passim

   Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error, 115

   view of violence against women and rape in Montaillou, 121

life-cycle domestic service, 25, 26, 27

   appearance of in medieval era, 91

   comparison of in northern versus southern Europe in modern era, 251

   example of family of seventeenth- century vicar Ralph Josselin, 55

   importance for women, 55–56

   sexual experience of youth in early- and late-marriage settings, 57–64, 91

   see also adolescence; Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman; Bennett, Judith M.; Gillis, John R.; Hajnal, John; Hanawalt, Barbara; Laslett, Peter; late-marriage pattern; McDonald, Michael; servants

Locke, John, 20, 224–27

Luther, Martin, 215–16

Lynch, Katherine, 267

Macfarlane, Alan, 17, 18, 77, 233–34

   The Family Life of Ralph Josselin, 55

   Origins of English Individualism, 17–18

   The Savage Wars of Peace, 29n70, 29

Mack, Phyllis, Visionary Women: Ecstatic Prophesy in Seventeenth-Century England, 216–17

male dominance, see gender and power arrangements; gender and identity

manhood, see gender and power arrangements; gender and identity

Malthus, Thomas, 22

marriage, see early-marriage households; late-marriage households; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern

Marx, Karl, 232

Massachusetts Bay Colony, 112

Mather, Cotton

   as defender of “spectral evidence” in 1692, 164

   on wife-beating, 134

   on women and witches, 112

Mather, Increase

   and new charter for Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1692, 163

   “spectral evidence” declared insufficient to convict a witch, 164

McDonald, Michael, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England, 53

McIntosh, Marjorie, 61

medieval northwestern Europe

   evolution of features of late-marriage pattern in, Chapter 3, 70–110, 243

   late medieval Montaillou, chapter 4, 111–43, 171

   rise of popular religiosity in later period, 210–11

   see also late-marriage household

men

   and attention to gender relations, 143, 263–65

   and comparison of witchcraft and heresy as male strategies, 171–73

   concerns about women compared in Montaillou and Salem case studies, 144–45, 147

   and evolution of late-marriage pattern, 136, 138

   and heresy in Montaillou, 147–59

   and household structures, 142–43

   see also adulthood and old age; early-marriage households; family; gender and identity; gender and power arrangements; history; inheritance practices; late-marriage households; sex and sexuality; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern; women

Mendels, Franklin, and proto-industrialization, 235–36

merchets, 70–72

Mernissi, Fatima, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society, 56

Middle Ages, see medieval northwestern Europe

misogyny, 38, 198

   see also early-marriage households; gender and power arrangements; late-marriage households; Montaillou; witchcraft

Montaillou

   absence of life-cycle service in, 117

   attitudes toward work compared to those in Salem, 125–26

   description of village and its inhabitants, 114–19

   evidence for household stability in, 119

   explanation of men’s failure to prescribe women’s behavior in, 132

   gender divide in allegiance to heresy, 147–59

   households “mixed” in, 114, 118

   husband-beating in, 134

   marriage and property arrangements in, 118

   omnipresent misogyny in, 111–12

   ostal as primary social unit, and chapters 4 and 5, 117 passim

   servants in, 117

   sexual division of labor in, 122–24

   singleness among men in, 118

   usefulness of comparison with Salem Village, 113–14, 197–201

   wife-beating in, 133–34

   see also early-marriage households; late-marriage households; heresy; witchcraft

More, Thomas, Utopia

   as critique of sixteenth-century English household structures, 37

   description of, 34–38, 68

   gender division of labor in, 36

   relevance to this study, 35, 35n5, 68–69

Norton, Mary Beth, 115, 131

   Founding Mothers and Fathers: Gendered Power and the Forming of American Society, 115n16, 115, 166–67, 226n49, 240

   In the Devil’s Snare, 115, 159, 161–64

Otis, Leah Lydia, Prostitution in Medieval Society: The History of an Urban Institution in Languedoc, 59

Ozment, Steven, When Fathers Ruled: Family Life in Reformation Europe, 212

parenthood

   in early- versus late-marriage settings, 64–66

   see also childhood and childrearing practices; early-marriage households; late-marriage households

Parris, Samuel, profile as minister of Salem Village church, 159–60

political developments in early modern Europe, 218–31

   and attributions of egalitarian and democratic systems to elites, 220–22

   democratic and industrial revolutions overplayed in historical explanation, 259

   households as influence on monarchical reaction, 224–25

   influence of domestic power relations on early modern English political theory, 219–22, 224–27

   thesis summary on origins of liberal and egalitarian movements, 227–31

   undercutting of patriarchal power from medieval era, 220–22

Poos, Lawrence R., A Rural Society After the Black Death: Essex; 1350–1525

   case for late marriage by at least fourteenth century, 49n43, 49, 72n8, 72

   evidence for life-cycle service, 73

   high mobility of late-medieval population, 73

Protestantism, 31

   comparison to Catharism, 211–12

   and disappearance of purgatory, 42

   and doctrine of salvation through grace, 166–67, 168

   household enshrined as origin of earthly authority, 214

   and links to prior late-marriage pattern, 210–17

   and women, 212–13

Puritans, see Protestantism; Salem Village and Town; witch hunts

rape and violence against women

   patterns of in early- and late-marriage households, 132–42

   rape in Montaillou and colonial New England compared, 135–38

   view of Le Roy Ladurie on rape as widespread in Montaillou, 121

Reformation, 210–17

   see also Catholicism; Protestantism

Reher, David S., comparison of family ties in contemporary northern and southern Europe, 250–56

Roper, Lyndal, The Holy Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg, 213

Rubin, Gayle, 178

Ryan, Mary, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790–1885, 258

Salem Village and Town, 119–21

   age of women at marriage and lifetime celibacy in compared to Montaillou, 120

   attitudes toward work compared to Montaillou, 125–26

   description of, 119–21

   differences from Montaillou in gender and power arrangements, 112–14

   divisions within, 120–21

   and greater respect accorded to wives than in Montaillou, 131–32

   links between Salem outbreak and Indian frontier wars, 161–64

   men’s attitudes toward women compared with those in Montaillou

   sexual division of labor in, 125

   summary of early events of witchcraft outbreak, 145–46

   usefulness of comparison with Montaillou, 113–14, 197–201

   wife-beating in colonial New England, 134

   see also gender and identity; gender and power arrangements; late-marriage households; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern; witchcraft; witch-hunts

sati, 67–68

Sen, Amartya, 46n36, 45–47

servants, 6–19, 20, 82, 117

   see also adolescence; life-cycle domestic service; Montaillou; Salem Village and Town

sex and sexuality

   among early modern women accused of sexual misbehavior, 138–39

   evidence from primate anthropology for competitive female behaviors, 182–84

   shift in lay morality in early modern Europe, 58–59

   shift in mechanisms to control youthful sexuality, 62–63

   as shifting marker of social identity, 4; in Utopia, 35

   surgical methods to prevent female sexual intercourse, 184–85

   switch in Victorian era in declared female and male sex drives, 265

   women and the right to refuse sexual advances, 139–42

   among youth in early- and late-marriage societies, 57–64, 99

   see also adolescence; Bennett, Judith M.; gender and power arrangements; homosexuality; rape and sexual violence

singleness

   among early modern English women, 240

   in early modern Europe, 6

   increasingly voluntary status in modern era, 17–29, 270

   among Montaillou men, 118

Smith, Bonnie G., Ladies of the Leisure Class: the Bourgeoises of Northern France in the Nineteenth Century, 257

Smith, Daniel Scott, 45

   and married women’s household power in the nineteenth century, 266

Smith, Richard M., 16, 39n13, 39–40, 72, 73–75, 75n17, 77

   contests Jack Goody’s theory of origins for late-marriage, 85–86

   evidence in late-marriage settings for retirement contracts from at least 13th century, 83n39, 83

son-preference

   in early- versus late-marriage settings, 40–48

   rationales for in rural India in the 1960s, 41

   see also infanticide and neglect, female; Sen, Amartya

Spring, Eileen, 220

   Law, Land and Family: Aristocratic Inheritance in England, 1300–1800, 247–48

Stone, Lawrence

   on families in northwestern Europe, 99

   and Keith Wrightson on his legacy, 7n15, 7–8

   and sexual repression in the early-modern West, 58n73, 58

Taiwan, example of contemporary shift to late-marriage system, 281–82

Tilly, Charles, 1, 4, 5, 250

   Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons, 1–3, 33

Tilly, Louise, 8–9

de Tocqueville, Alexis,

Trumbach, Randolph, 220, 222

Ulrich, Laurel, 130, 142

Verdury, Katherine, 150

Walzer, Michael, 127

Watkins, Susan Cott, 15–16

Weber, Max, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 232

Western (or northwestern European) family pattern, 6, 11, 13, 15, 21, 26, 28, 30, 176

   example from sixteenth-century England, 27–28

   and influence after 1800, 248–49

   label of Peter Laslett for northwestern European late-marriage pattern, 18

   notions of manhood and womanhood compared and contrasted for Salem and Montaillou, 173–75

   origins of, chapter 3, 70–110; alternative explanations for, 84–86, 92–93; correspondence with classical European feudal region, 75; evidence for effects in late-medieval legal developments, 100–2; evidence for features in modern Japan, 94–95; evolution of features in medieval era hypothesized, 90–92, 96–103; examples of features in medieval era, 71, 72–78; as one of two systems of family formation in agricultural societies, 78–84, 86

   opinion on of Peter Laslett, 76; postponement of women’s marriage hypothesized as initial feature, 87–90, 93–96, 98–99

   portrayal as cluster of features, 102

   and the recreation of gendered selves over time, 181, 188–93

   and responses to the fourteenth- century plague, 77–78

   thesis of dynamism of region owing to late-marriage system, 243– 50

   as tool for assessing existing historical accounts, 102–3, 244–46

   see also Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure; Hajnal, John; Laslett, Peter; late-marriage pattern; Poos, Lawrence R.

Whyte, Martin King

   critique of Jack Goody’s dismissal of late-marriage, 81n36, 81

   on riddle of origins of first industrial transformation, 231

   The Status of Women in Pre-industrial Societies, 191

Winthrop, John, 127, 166

witchcraft

   compared with heresy as male strategy, 171–73

   differing views toward female practitioners of, 146

   recent commentators on, 146–47

   in Salem, 113, 159–71

witch hunts, 38

   as extreme reactions to women’s enhanced domestic authority, 38, 165

   in late medieval and early modern Europe, 113, 166–67, 168

   in late seventeenth-century Salem, 115, 171; summary of early events of 1692 outbreak, 145–46; summary of course and end of outbreak, 161–64

   link between female heirs of property and accusations of witchcraft, 170–71

   role of witches in early modern era, 199–201

   and seventeenth-century New England women named as witches, 168–71

   see also gender and power arrangements; witchcraft

Wollstonecraft, Mary, 262

womanhood, see gender and identity; gender and power arrangements; women

women

   and argument for enhanced household authority of in nineteenth century, 265–68

   and control of fertility in modern era, 269–70

   and defense of honor in defamation suits in late-marriage contexts, 138–39

   differences among illuminated by differences in household structure, 121–22

   and gender violence in early- and late-marriage societies, 132–42

   and heresy in Montaillou, 147–59

   and inheritance practices in hoe and plow societies, 80–81

   and late ages at marriage as precondition for change in early modern era, 202–41

   and misogyny and early modern witch-hunts, 37–38

   and popular English Civil War movements, 218–19

   the “woman-on-top,” 204–8

   and work, 23; contrast between early- and late-marriage societies, 64; in early marriage societies, 82; increased demand for in late- marriage societies, 91; link between absence of productive labor and exposure to neglect or infanticide, 46–47; medieval women and, 70–71; in Montaillou and Salem, 129–131; as purchasers of marriage licenses in medieval England, 70–72

   see also adulthood and old age; early-marriage households; family; history; gender and power arrangements; heresy; inheritance practices; late-marriage households; political developments in early modern Europe; sex and sexuality; singleness; Western (or northwestern European) family pattern; witchcraft; witch-hunts

Wood, Charles, 244–46

Wrightson, Keith, 7n15, 7–8

Wrigley, E. Anthony

   on family structure and inheritance patterns, 10n21

   on the preindustrial family, 19n44