Fascists

Index

Abel, Theodore, 144

Action Française, 86

agrarian landlords, 52; role in fascist Italy, 125; role in Weimar Germany, 52

Alfonso XIII (King of Spain), 302

American Legion, 70

anarcho-syndicalism, 35, 310; effectiveness of, 314; membership numbers for, 310–311; in Spain, 310, 314

Andorfer, Herbert, 223

Anschluss (union with Germany), 207, 208, 211, 219, 220, 244; capitalism and, 229; effect on Austro-fascism, 214, 222, 362; effect on unemployment levels, 222; Gestapo and, 219; unemployment and, 221; Vienna civil service, 220

anti-Semitism: in Austria, 84, 224–228; in Germany, 184; historical background for, 228; Hitler and, 247; in Hungary, 238, 250, 253, 254; materialist explanations of, 228; in Mein Kampf, 184–185; in Nazi Party campaigns, 180, 183, 185; political, 224; role in class conflict, 228; in Romania, 238; stereotypes and, 226–227; völkisch nationalism and, 84

Antonescu, Marshal, 293

Arditi del Populo, 103

Argentina, 24; authoritarian movements in, 24

Arkan’s Tigers, viii

Army of Africa, 337, 340; Africanistas in, 337

Arrow Cross movement (Hungary), 237, 239, 248, 249, 255, 256, 269, 292; Communist Party support for, 255; decline of, 244; economic demographic of, 248, 249; electoral demographics of, 255; ethnic lineage within, 250; fascism and, 386; ideology of, 245–247; paramilitarism as part of, 247; population of, 237; voter’s support for, 256, 258; voting demographics for, 238

art forms. See propaganda

Austria, 1, 25, 30, 34, 36, 207; anti-Semitism in, 207, 219, 224, 225; Austro-Hungarian monarchy and, 208; authoritarianism in, 41, 220; Christian Social Party in, 45, 208, 215, 217, 362; economic status of, interwar, 221–222; effect of Great Depression on, 221, 230; effect of socialism in, 219; fascism in, 87, 208, 235, 362; Fatherland Front Party in, 209; German Nationalist Party in, 224; Heimwehr paramilitary, 208, 213; Hitler and, 207, 235, 362; Judeo-Bolshevism in, 228; Korneuburg Oath and, 210; Linz Program in, 34; militarism in, 36, 213; nationalism movements in, 36, 83, 211; organic authoritarianism in, 213; population demographics for, 208; Protestants in, 216; religious history in, 215; role of church in, 362; Social Christian Party in, 224; Social Darwinism in, 82; Socialist Party of, 212, 223, 224, 229, 231; unemployment levels in, 222. See also Vienna

Austrian Legion, 28

Austrian Nazi Party, 211; Anschluss and, 212; effect of class conflict on, 221; effect of Hitler on, 212; effect on unemployment, 219; elite support of, 229–230; foundations of, 211, 222; role of paramilitarism in, 236

authoritarianism: in Austria, 10; conservatives and, 43; corporatist, 46–47; current versions of, 370; vs. (democratic) educational enrollment, 88; vs. democratic nation demographic, 50; economic theory and, 56; effect of class conflict on, 58; as effect of political crises, 77, 353; effect on interwar Europe, 54, 66; effect on nation-statism, 56; eras of, 57; European political demography and, 41–42; fascists and, 43, 47–48; Franco and, 44; in Hungary, 10; late development theory and, 49, 51, 55; modern versions of, 44, 353; in Romania, 10; semi-reactionary, 45–46; social development under, 54; Soviet Union and, 43

Azana, Matthew, 350

Bauer, Otto, 17, 232; on fascism 17; on Italian fascism, 125

Bildung (cultured education), 166

“Black Reichswehr” conspiracy, 198

Blair, Tony, 14

Blanco, Carrero, 344

Bolshevik Revolution, 59, 63, 76, 130, 356; property rights during, 63

Bolshevism, 23, 117, 125, 132, 204; in Germany, 61; Nazi Party and, 174, 187; in Weimar Republic, 144

Bourbon monarchy, 301–302, 347

“bourgeois nations,” 6, 192; effect on Nazi Party on, 192; electoral losses by, 193; materialism within, 7

Brazil, 24; authoritarian movements in, 24

Brunner, Alois, 215

Bucharest Legionary Worker’s Corp, 281

Caballerist Party, 321

caciques (leaders), 71, 297, 304; electoral reform opposition by, 304; role in European political systems, 356

Cambodian Angka, viii

capitalism: “Bonapartist autonomy” and, 20; capital/labor conflict as part of, 59; class conflict as result of, 7; effect of authoritarianism on, 77; fascism and, 15, 119; Franco and, 346; imperialist, 20; industrial, 35; interwar support for, 53; labor rights and, 125–126; Marx on, 62; monopolist, 20; nationalism and, 4; “organized,” 54; property rights under, 62; role in Weimar Republic, 201; unionization and, 63

Carlos, Juan (King of Spain), 347

Carol (King of Romania), 57, 264, 275, 281, 288, 289, 291, 293; Hitler and, 289

Casa del Pueblo Party, 328

Casa Social Católica Party, 328

Casa Viejas, 316

Catholic Centre Party, 160, 164, 186, 187, 200

Catholic Opus Dei, 346

Catholicism, 42, 85, 126, 129; Austro-fascism and, 209, 215; authoritarianism and, 232; fascism and, 126, 127, 136; in Germany, 187–188; labor unions and, 86; Nazism and, 148, 187; social, 86, 126, 209, 301, 341; in Spain, 301, 329, 345, 349; transnationalism and, 187

CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rightists): demographics of, 329, 335–340, 341; dissolution of, 309, 333, 335; Falange Party and, 335; fascism and, 332, 333; Gil Robles and, 330–331, 338; political ideology of, 330, 331; role of Catholic Church in, 329, 331; semi-authoritarian leanings of, 332; Socialist Party vs., 331

Century of Corporatism, The (Manoilescu), 277

Chiang Kai-Shek, 46

China, 39; authoritarianism in, 39

Christian Social Party: in Austria, 45, 208, 223; authoritarianism in, 232; effect on Great Depression on, 233; Heimwehr paramilitary and, 210

Christus Rex Party, 41, 269

church systems, 85; Catholicism, 85–86; Eastern Orthodoxy, 85; fascism and, 86–87; Protestantism, 85

citizenship: political, 37; social, 37

“civil society,” 7, 33, 51; ethnic/political cleansing within, 171; Italy and, 106; social marginality within, 170

class theory: bourgeois, 189; capitalism as part of, 20, 21, 55, 59; conflict as part of, 13, 58, 59–60, 63–64; fascism and, 5, 15, 53, 96, 124; “mass society,” 170; middle-, 17, 19–20, 21, 58; Nazism and, 20; political parties and, 53; radicalism as part of, 20; role of unions in, 53; role of World War I in, 96–97; social bases and, 21

Codreanu, Corneliu, 265, 268, 271, 272, 275, 276; anti-Semitism of, 266, 271; biographical background of, 265; “Creed of National Christian Socialism” and, 266; democratic theory of, 267; organic nationalism and, 267; Programme of the Legion and, 267; religious ideology of, 267; statism and, 267

collectivism, 11

Colombia, democracy in, 39

communication networks: effect on fascism of, 130; macro-regional, 78; nation-states, 78; role of churches in, 85; transnational, 78, 81

Communist Party: in Austria, 230; Legion of the Archangel Saint Michael and, 277; Maximalist Party and, 124; Nazism and, 187

corporatist authoritarianism, 46, 277; hierarchy under, 46; parliamentary rules under, 46–47; role of armed forces under, 46

Cortina, Suarez, 335

Costa Rica, democracy in, 39

“Creed of National Christian Socialism,” support for Eastern Orthodox Church, 266

Czechoslovakia, 41, 244; ethnical divisions within, 41; German Sudeten Party in, 41

Dark Side of Democracy, The: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (Mann), viii, 4, 171

democracy, 51, 53; effect of capitalist industrialization on, 52; effect of economic development on, 51–52; effect of per capita income on, 54; role in Weimar Germany, 205

democratic “contestation,” 71; competitive party systems as part of, 71; effect of political party domination in, 75

democratic “participation,” 71; suffrage movements as part of, 71

dual states, 73, 74; fascism and, 77; semi-authoritarianism and, 73

Eastern Orthodoxy, 85, 276; nationalism and, 86, 276; nation-statism and, 85

Eatwell, Roger, 11; on fascism, 11; “third way” and, 14

Eberl, Irmfried, 223

economic development, 48–49; effect on authoritarianism, 56; effect on democratization, 51–52; factors for, 49, 137; industrial capitalism and, 49; during interwar period (Europe), 58

Eichmann, Adolf, 141, 223

Eliade, Mircea, 278, 279; “Romanianism” and, 278

Enlightment era, 80, 81

Esquerra Party, 307, 308, 319

ethnic blindness, 74

ethnic/political cleansing, vii, 4, 16, 122, 370; conservatism as part of, 370; “enemies” and, 16; Nazi Party and, 179; Nazism and, 16; organic nationalism and, 16; in Spain, 344

EU (European Union), 371; requirements for democracy of, 371

eugenics, 82

Europe: domination by fascism, 31; effect of authoritarianism in, 54, 357; effect of Bolshevism in, 357; effect of conservatism in, 354, 355; Great Depression in, 23; interwar crises in, 23–24; interwar map of, 38; land reform in, 356; liberal democracy in, 31, 37, 38; macro-regional cultures in, 43; militarism in, 356; multiparty democracy in, 38; political geography of, 39; political modernism in, 355; political role of church in, 356–357, 361; populist nationalism in, 355; social democracy in, 37; unionization in, 60–61; voting demography of, 37, 42

Evangelical Church of Germany, 188; Nazi Party and, 188

Falange Party: CEDA and, 335; Franco and, 345, 346; role of religion within, 336; in Spain, 313, 334, 335–338

fasci di combattimento, 95

fascism: activism as part of, 28, 141; agrarian policies under, 115; in Austria, 47; authoritarianism and, 47; barbarianism and, 8; Bauer, Otto, on, 125–126; capitalism and, 15; Catholic Church and, 126, 127, 361; causes of, in Germany, 152; citizen armies as part of, 2; class conflict and, 111, 120; class theories on, 5, 15, 17, 19, 53, 100; Constitutionalist Party as part of, 119; core constituencies for, 3, 15, 19, 23, 79, 89, 107, 113, 119; definition of, 5, 13, 63–64, 365; development ideology as part of, 130; economic demographics for, 107, 113; effect of class conflict on, 58; effect of corporatism on, 306; as effect of modernism, 1, 13, 80; effect of overeducation on, 112; electoralism under, 47, 358; etymology of, 9, 93; in Europe, 31, 358; female demographic, 108; foundations of, 99, 358; hierarchy within, 29; ideology, 2, 3, 4; internationalism vs., 132; Islamic, 373; Italian government reaction to, 124, 125; Italy and, 47, 105 (see also Italian fascism); late development theory and, 56; liberal democracy and, 8, 77, 136; macro-regional communication networks within, 78; “minimum” for, 10; “moral murder” as part of, 8; nation-state communication networks within, 78; nation-statism and, 4, 137, 358; Nazism vs., 104; “new man” as part of, 12; organizational structure of, 358; paramilitarism and, 47, 102, 121, 123, 127, 275, 359; prewar theory, 68; radicalism as part of, 15; “rational economic actor” model of, 158; “revolutionary” theory for, 124; role of intellectuals within, 7; role of peasant leagues in, 116; role of students in, 108, 359; role of violence in, 3, 114, 116, 121, 122; role of working class in, 110; rural involvement in, 113, 116, 117, 118; scholarly definitions of, viii; “social cages” within, 3; socialism and, 108, 111, 130; sociology of, 3–4, 21; “transcendence” and, 16; transnational communication networks within, 78; unions as part of, 117; urban involvement in, 110, 113; vs. dictatorships, 16–17

Fatherland Front Party, 210; Heimwehr paramilitary, 210

“The Final Solution,” 62, 207, 212; role of Austria in, 225; role of Hungary in, 244; in Romania, 292

Fini, Gianfranco, 367

Finnish Lapau Movement, 41

Fitzhum, Josef, 226

Fortuyn, Pim, 367

France, 40, 59; authoritarianism in, 40; Communist Party in, 59; conservatism in, 83; early paramilitarism in, 70; nation-statism in, 84; organic nationalism in, 83; Republican Radicals Party in, 35

Franco, Francisco, 44, 62, 345, 363; capitalism and, 346; Carlist Party and, 345; corporatist authoritarianism and, 346; ethnic/political cleansing by, 344; importance of army for, 345; importance of Catholic Church to, 345; importance of Falange Party for, 345, 346, 350; “Law of Responsibilities” and, 343; Nationalist forces of, 345; political opportunism of, 339, 351; semi-reactionary politics of, 346; titles of, 345

Frankfurt School, 19

Freedom Party of Haider (Austria), 367, 368, 369

Freikorps paramilitary, 153

French Revolution, 32, 54; industrial capitalism during, 32, 54; Jacobinism, 32

Freud, Sigmund, 227

“front” generation, 149, 213; Austrian fascism and, 213; in Hungary, 247; in Romania, 272

Front National Party, 367

Gauleiter (regional leaders), 151, 160, 163; social mobility within, 168

“Generation of 1914,” 149, 283; “front” generation as part of, 149; “home” generation as part of, 149; role of Führer for, 149

George, Lloyd, 36

German Christian Social Party, 34

German Nazi Party: academic professionals as part of, 165, 166; age demographics for, 148–149, 150, 155; agrarian support for, 190; agricultural policies of, 180; anti-Semitism campaigns of, 180, 184; “authority principle” in, 197; blue-collar supporters of, 156–157, 172; Catholics in, 186, 187; civil servants in, 163, 191; class voting demographics within, 189–190; constitution of, 155; core constituencies for, 147, 203; early rise of, 361–362; economic policies of, 181, 191, 197; effect of Great Depression on, 185, 361; electoral strategy of, 177–179, 184–185, 186; Emergency Powers Provisions and, 185; ethnic/political cleansing and, 179; Evangelical German Church and, 188, 203; German expansion and, 178; German foreign policy and, 178; importance of rituals to, 173; military demographics for, 151; mobilization cells within, 173; nation-statism and, 155; organic nationalism within, 178, 180, 362; Party Constitution of 155, 285; patriarchy as part of, 148; productivist socialism within, 182; Protestants in, 186–187, 203; public works programs of, 181; religious demographics within, 155; role of armed forces in, 199; role of paramilitaries in, 167–168, 361, 362; role of propaganda in, 178; role of women in, 147–148; SA Army as part of, 167; social activism within, 170; social marginality within, 168, 170, 172; social mobility within, 168; “Socialism of the Deed,” 181; SS Army as part of, 167; Stahlhelm paramilitary and, 150; Volkspartei and, 172; voting demographics, 186; white-collar supporters of, 161. See also Nazism

German People’s Party, 34; nationalism as part of, 34

German Protestantism, Nazism and, 26

German Social Democrat Party, 34

German Socialist Party, 160

German Sudeten Party, 41

Germany, 1, 15, 22, 25, 30, 40, 55, 56, 59, 363; authoritarianism in, 41; Bolshevism in, 61, 356; bourgeois liberalism in, 59; Catholicism in, 139, 155; Christian Social Party in, 34; conservatism in, 36; effect of class conflict in, 204, 361; effect of educational system in, 84; effect of Great Depression on, 139, 204; effect of paramilitarism on, 152, 153–154, 364; effect of World War I on, 139, 361, 364; Freikorps paramilitary in, 152; genocide, effect on, 22; industrial capitalism in, 32, 195; Jews in (demographics), 141; labor movements in, 363; military organization in, 154–155; nation-statism in, 188; organic nationalism in, 83; Pan-German Party in, 34; parliamentarism in, 205; People’s Party in, 34; protectionist models in, 55; Protestantism in, 139, 155; racial theory within, 184; role of agrarian landlords in, 52; role of Evangelical Church in, 139, 188; role of religion in, 27; role of veteran’s organizations in, 152; Romania and, 264; Romanticism in, 365; Social Darwinism in, 82; Social Democrat Party in, 34; socialism in, 182; Sonderweg in, 42; unemployment in, 152; volkisch nationalism in, 84, 141

Gil Robles, José Maria, 306, 321, 338; CEDA and, 330, 332

Giscard d’Estaing, Valerie, 347

GNP: effect of per capita measurements on, 49; late development theory and, 49; nation-statism effect on, 32

Goebbels, Paul Josef, 151, 182, 199

Goldman, Lucien, 80

Göring, Hermann, 21, 152, 182; Hitler and, 243

Great Britain: General Strike of 1926 in, 60; Labour Party in, 72; New Liberal Party in, 35, 72; Union of Fascists in, 70

The Great Depression, 20, 23, 24, 57, 90, 135, 353; authoritarianism during, 57; effect on Austria, 233; effect on German nationalism, 233; effect on Hungary, 254; effect on NPP, 264; effect on Romania, 264, 293; effect on SA Army (Nazi Party), 167; Nazism and, 182

Greece, 45; Metaxas coup in, 45, 61

Griffin, Roger, 11, 12; on fascism, 12; on “national rebirth,” 13

gross national product. See GNP

Habsburg Dynasty, 33, 225; Hungary and, 241, 249, 250

Heimwehr paramilitary, 208, 209, 210, 211, 216, 217, 220, 232; armed forces representation in, 217; “Association of Front Fighters” and, 213; Christian Social Party and, 210, 233; core constituency of, 213; demonstrations by, 231; elite support for, 229; Fatherland Front and, 210; formation of, 209–210; gender demographics for, 212–213; Marxism and, 209; mean age within, 212; Nazi infiltration into, 233; New York Times and, 216–217; political aggression of, 232; population demographics, 210; populism of, 222; radicalism of, 209; role of women in, 213–214; urban representation within, 217; violence and, 218; white-collar representation in, 223

Himmler, Heinrich, 344

hindu rastra (Hindu nation), 372

Hitler, Adolf, 9, 15, 21, 24, 41, 61, 66, 90, 142, 143, 204; Austria and, 207, 224; Bolshevism and, 61; capitalism and, 183; early anti-Semitism of, 184, 206; early days of, 233, 234; economic policies of, 180; electoral strategy of, 185, 199–200; fascism and, 48; Führer principle and, 143, 267; Göring and, 182, 243; Hungary and, 250, 257; King Carol and, 289; military history of, 152; Mussolini and, 134; Nazi socialism and, 143, 183; Nuremberg racial laws and, 229; religious background of, 155; role of “enemies” to, 142; social marginality of, 170; social opportunism of, 146; Strasser and, 183; use of propaganda by, 79

Hitler Youth, 149, 174

Holocaust, 6, 9; role of Hungary in, 253

“home” generation, 149, 153, 213; Austrian fascism and, 213; in Hungary, 247; in Romania, 272

“humanistic bourgeoisie,” 79, 112, 131, 132; nation-statist values and, 112

Hungary, 1, 25, 30, 59; anti-Semitism in, 245, 251, 252–253, 258; causes for economic disruption in, 242, 259; civil war in, 241, 245, 257, 362; communist-socialist government in, 240; dual market system in, 251; early Nazism in, 243; early racial tolerance in, 238, 250; effect of Great Depression on, 242, 245, 252; effect of national socialism in, 246; effect of World War I on, 238; ethnic origins in, 249–250; “Heroes Association” in, 240; Jewish population in, 251–252; late development economic policy and, 55; “Lumpenguardists” in, 253; Maygar Creed in, 242; militarism in, 36; military support in, 246; National Radical Party in, 249; organic nationalism in, 245, 257; protofascist movements in, 240, 255, 257, 362–363; Red Army in, 245; role in Holocaust, 244, 253; role of geopolitics in, 245; spiritual principle of, 246; statist ideals of development in, 245; “Szeged Idea” in, 240; “white terror” in, 59, 243

Hussein, Saddam, 373

Hutu Interahamwe, viii

ideological power, 78–87, 137; conservatism and, 79; institutionalized, 78; liberalism and, 79; meaning systems as part of, 78; role of churches in, 85, 126–127; socialism and, 79

India, 24; fascism in, 373; Gowalkar in, 372; Hindu nationalism in, 372–373; Hindu Nationalist BJP Party in, 373; hindu rastra in, 372; Hindutva as part of, 372; Hitler and, 24; Indian Legion in, 372; nation-statism in, 373

integral nationalism. See organic nationalism

Integralismo Lusitano, 86

Interest Alliance Party, 191, 192; Nazi Party effect on, 191

Ionesco, Eugen, 279

Ireland, 42; role of Catholicism in, 42

Iron Guard, 265, 275, 371; LANC and, 265. See also Legion of the Archangel Saint Michael

“Iron Law of Oligarchy,” 160

Islamic fascism, 373, 374; Al Qaeda as part of, 374; jihadis as part of, 373; nationalism and, 373; Sudanese, 374

Italian Confederacy of Industry, 120

Italian fascism, 7, 21, 66, 96, 100, 130, 133, 358; early rise of, 360–361; effect of capitalist crises on, 95; factions within, 133; Fascist Grand Council and, 134; focus of nationalism in, 130, 131; Marxism and, 360; Ministry of Corporations and, 134; radicals within, 134; regional demographics, 105–107; role of Catholic Church in, 94, 115; role of liberal parliamentarism in, 93, 95; role of proletariat in, 94; role of unions within, 134; Socialist Party in, 93; syndicalists in, 94, 98; Syndicates and, 134

Italy, 1, 25, 30, 54, 60, 87, 93; economic recession in, 57; effect of citizen warfare on, 95; effect of World War I on, 139; infant mortality rates in, 384; labor strikes in, 60, 123; labor movements in, 94; leftist insurgence in, 121; male suffrage in, 93; militarism in, 36; municipal socialism in, 124; nationalism in, 115; per capita income (interwar), 54

Jacobinism, 32, 35; French Revolution and, 32

Japan, 24; authoritarianism in, 39; corporatism in, 46; nation-statism in, 24

Jurados Mixtos, 318, 326, 347

Kaiserreich, 150, 187, 188, 192, 200, 204; semi-authoritarianism and, 205

Kaltenbrunner, Ernst, 226

Kautsky, Karl, 225, 227

Keyser, John, 239, 253

Kreisleiter (subregional leaders), 163

Kun, Bela, 59, 254, 256; defeat of, 240; in Hungary, 59, 240, 251

LANC (League of National Christian Defense), 265, 283; anti-Semitism of, 287; Iron Guard and, 265

late development theory: authoritarianism and, 49, 51, 55; class conflict as result of, 64; fascism and, 56; liberal democracy and, 54–55; literacy rates and, 51; modernism and, 51; nation-statism as part of, 49; role of GNP in, 49; role of infant mortality in, 51; semi-authoritarianism and, 64

League of National Christian Defense. See LANC (League of National Christian Defense)

Ledesma Ramos, Ramiro, 11

Legion of the Archangel Saint Michael, 8, 237, 265, 269, 272, 275, 280, 288, 290, 292, 295; anti-Semitism within, 269, 277; average age in, 272; “citadels” as part of, 272; Communist Party and, 290; electoral strength of, 268; formation of, 273; iconography and, 282; nation-statism and, 273; nests and, 267, 280, 284; population of, 237; proletarian nationalism and, 288, 291; religious ideology of, 268, 280; role of propaganda for, 268; role of women in, 272–273; Szekler support for, 286; “The Final Solution” and, 292; violence and, 268; voter support for, 282; white-collar support for, 276, 280, 281

liberal democracy: British miners and, 72; contestation as part of, 71; effect of monarchy on, 73; effect on Europe, 24, 37, 82, 90, 354; fascism and, 8, 119, 128, 136; (Italian) government support for, 129, 360; nation-statism and, 35; Nazism and, 73, 173; participation as part of, 71

liberalism. See liberal democracy

“Lib-Labs,” 72

Linz, Austria, 233; Hitler in, 233–234; role of Catholic Church in, 234; Upper Austrian Christian Social Party, 234

Linz, Juan, 11; on fascism, 11

Linz Program, 34, 230, 232

List, Friedrich, 32, 180

Lliga Party, 307

Luxembourg, Rosa, 82

Man, Henri de, 7

Manoilescu, Mihai, 277; background of, 277; political theories of, 277

March on Rome, 48, 106, 120, 127, 130, 133

Marx, Karl, 62

Marxism, 17, 34, 117; socialism and, 34

Maximalist Party, 121, 122, 124, 128; Communist Party and, 124

Mein Kampf (Hitler), 141, 177; anti-Semitism in, 184–185, 206

Merkl, Peter, 144

Meyszner, August, 216

military power, 64–70, 137; effect of authoritarianism on, 77; fascism and, 66–67; “Judeo-Bolsheviks” and, 66; “mass armies” as part of, 75, 76; social power as result of, 64, 356; troop mobilization and, 65; World War I and, 65

mittlestand (middle estate), 18, 161, 162, 163; economic demographics of, 161; white-collar workers and, 163

modernism: fascism and, 1, 13, 80; late development theory and, 51

Moore, Barrington, 51, 52, 65

Mosley, Oswald, 7; on socialism vs. nationalism, 7

Mosse, George, 2; on fascism vs. Nazism, 9

Mubarak, Hosnei, 373

Mussolini, Benito: African aggression by, 134–135; on Bolshevism, 125, 132; Catholic Church and, 126; on democracy, 97; development of totalitarian state by, 98, 102; effect on Italian class conflict, 120; ethnic/political cleansing by, 344; fasci di combattimento and, 95; Heimwehr paramilitary and, 229; Hitler and, 134; Italian fascism and, 7, 9, 14, 15, 21, 61, 93, 95, 97, 133, 243; March on Rome by, 48, 129; organic nationalism and, 130, 131; paramilitarism and, 97, 99, 105; parliamentarism and, 98, 128; political opportunism of, 100, 111, 137; on rural fascism, 118; secret police and, 135; Social Catholicism and, 126; on socialism, 117; special courts and, 135; use of populist ideology by, 131; use of propaganda by, 79; warmongering by, 99

National Christian Party, 288

National Corporatist League, 277

National Peasant Party. See NPP (National Peasant Party)

National Socialism, 6, 246; in Hungary, 258; labor unions within, 6; syndicalism and, 6

nationalism, 2, 13–14, 34, 90; capitalism and, 4; civic, 34; cultural diversity and, 13; Eastern Orthodoxy and, 86; economic, 58; effect of authoritarianism on, 56; ethnic, 34; growth of, European, 33; imperialism effect on, 33; in Italy, 115; Nazi Party and, 202; organic, i, vii, 13; “rebirth” as part of, 13; role of “enemies” in, 13; school for, 4; in Spain, 302–303

nation-statism, i, 2, 3, 4, 27–28, 36, 58, 64, 90, 91, 203; Austro-fascism and, 234; authoritarian, 31; core fascist constituencies as part of, 3; despotic strength of, 31; extreme, 128; fascism and, 4, 113, 118; in Germany, 6; GNP averages as effect of, 32; importance of youth in, 87–88; infrastructural strength of, 31; during interwar period, 54; Japan and, 24; Judeo-Bolshevism and, 235; late development theory and, 49; liberalism as part of, 35; minorities and, 34; modern versions of, 37; Nazism and, 155; role of citizenship in, 32; role of property in, 35; role of religion in, 27; in Romania, 292–293; semi-authoritarianism and, 44; “sovereign,” 31; support demographics for, 27; vs. transnationalism, 187

Navarro, Arias, 344

Nazi Party Constitution of 1920, positive Christianity as part of, 155

Nazione, 128

Nazism, viii, 9, 14, 22, 40, 139; Anschluss and, 218; anti-Semitism and, 142, 183; capitalism and, 183; class theory and, 171, 201; corporate state and, 143; development of, 84, 201; economic policies under, 158; effect on liberal democracy, 73; fascism and, 47, 218; female labor force during, 147; Führer principle as part of, 143; German Protestantism and, 26; ideological focus of, 202, 227; importance of propaganda in, 165–166; importance of rituals in, 173; internationalism and, 142; land reform as part of, 142; liberal democracy and, 173; members, social profiles of, 22, 156–160; nationalism within, 178; nation-statism and, 171; paramilitarism and, 28; party program of 141, 285; polycracy within, 14; Protestantism and, 165; role of middle class in, 161–167; role of religion in, 187; role of violence within, 142, 174, 175, 198; role of völkisch in, 9; rural involvement in, 171; social activism as part of, 170; social attraction to, 146; social marginality and, 170; socialism as part of, 142, 143, 146, 149; socialization within, 170–171; unemployment and, 159, 181–182; universities and, 150; vs. Marxism, 140, 142; Wandervogel movement, 150. See also German Nazi Party

The Nazi Party: A Social Profile of Members and Leaders, 1919–1945 (Kater), 156

neo-fascism, 136, 365, 366, 374–375; European Union and, 371; immigration and, 370; interculturalism in, 368; military imperialism and, 375; NATO and, 371; skinheads and, 368; in Western Europe, 366

nest leaders, of Legion of Archangel Saint Michael (Romania), 267

New York Times, 216; Heimwehr demographics in, 216

New Zealand, 38

Nohel, Vinzenz, 223

Northern League Party, 369

Norway, 73

NPP (National Peasant Party), 263, 272, 280, 288; effect of Great Depression on, 264; in Romania, 241, 263

numerus clausus (Jewish quotas): in Hungary, 241, 254; in Viennese universities, 226

Nuremberg racial laws, Hitler and, 229

Official Statement on Farmers and Agriculture, 180

organic nationalism, i, vii, 2, 4, 6, 34, 43; authoritarianism and, 43; characteristics of, 34; democracy as part of, 2, 34; in Hungary, 245; liberal vs., 34; role of religion in, 27; violence as part of, i

Ottoman Dynasty, 33

Pan-German Party, 34

paramilitarism: activism as part of, 28; age-based demographics for, 26; “bottom-up,” 47, 359; early development of, 69; effect of educational levels on, 26; as effect of World War I, 68; effect on Austro-fascism, 208; electoral democracy and, 16–17; fascism and, 16, 29, 104, 119, 136; in Germany, 153; militarism vs., 26; vs. military power, 17; Mussolini, Benito, and, 97, 98–99; Nazism and, 28, 206; role of citizenry in, 68; role of comradeship in, 69, 104; social identity as part of, 104; SS Army (Nazi Party) and, 175; statism as part of, 359; “top-down,” 47; veteran leagues as result of, 68; violence as part of, 16, 198; World War I and, 36

Paris Commune of 319

Partito Nationale Fascista. See PNF (Partito Nationale Fascista)

Payne, Stanley, 10; on fascism foundations, 10–11

peasant leagues: Catholic Church and, 116; growth of, 116; labor exchanges of, 116; Nazi Party effect on, 191; role in fascism, 116

“petty bourgeoisie,” 18, 22; fascism and, 18, 108; role in Nazism of, 161

Pius XI, Pope, 126

PNF (Partito Nationale Fascista), 95, 101, 111, 113, 119; age demographics of, 102; financing of, 119–120; Reggio Emilio group in, 102; role of Social Catholicism in, 101; role of violence for, 114; role of women in, 101–102; social demographics of, 101; students’ role in, 108; voting demographics and, 115

political development theory, 73, 137; authoritarianism and, 77; Axis states and, 74

political geography (Europe), 39; Anglo-Saxon, 39; language as part of, 39; Low Country zone, 39; Nordic zone, 39; organic authoritarianism and, 40; religion as part of, 39; socio-cultural zones as part of, 40

political power, 70–78; authoritarianism, 70; effect of interwar period on, 70; effect on economic crises, 70; “elite theories” of, 70; institutional statist theory and, 70

Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, The (Mussolini), 97

“Popular Front” Party: electoral victories of, 299, 328, 332, 335, 338; insurgent acts by, 319; role in Spanish government, 308, 311, 314, 319, 321, 325, 347, 349

Portugal, militarism in, 36

Primo de Rivera, José, 7, 57, 298, 302, 303, 305, 334; biographical background of, 303; effect of Bolshevik Triennium on, 303; in Spain, 57, 363; support demographics for, 341

“proletarian nations,” 6, 55; fascism and, 116; resistance within, 6

propaganda, 5, 79

property rights: under authoritarianism, 63; under capitalism, 62, 355; under fascism, 120–121

Protestantism, 85; in Germany, 188; Nazism and, 148, 165, 187, 189

Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 78

Radek, Karl, 18; on fascism, 18–19

radical statism, vii

Red Guards, viii

redshirts, 104

Reggio Emilio, 109; PNF and, 102; role of workers in, 109

Reichsleiter (national leaders), 151, 160

Renovación Española Party: Sotelo, Calvo, and, 339; in Spain, 326, 333

Republican Assault Guard, 337, 339; center-left parties and, 337

Republican Centre Party, 321–325; Acción Republicana faction within, 322; “bourgeois” centrists within, 322; “Bourgeois Republic” as part of, 322; Left Republicans within, 322; main factions within, 322; political compromises of, 321; Radical Party within, 324, 325, 327; role of church in, 323, 349; “Republic of the Intellectuals” as part of, 322; voting demographics of, 322; white-collar support for, 326

Republikaner Party, 367, 368

Rerum Novarum, 86, 126

Rheinisch-Westfäslische Zeitung, 197

Rhinoceros (Ionesco), 279

Rhodesia, 38; CEDA and, 330, 332

Romania, 1, 25, 30, 45, 56; anti-Semitism in, 238, 270, 277, 285, 286, 294; Austro-Germans in, 285; authoritarianism in, 57; capital ownership demographics in, Communist Party in, 270; effect of peace treaties on, 261; fascism in, 87, 271–272, 276, 283, 288, 362–363, 370; fascist counties in, 283; foreign policies of, 271; formation of, 261; “Generation of 1922,” 279, 286; Germany and, 264; GNP per capita in, 263; “government by rotation” in, 263; Greater Romanian Party in, 370; Hitler and, 265; industrial development in, 263; interwar regimes in, 45; Jews in, 269–270; Judeo-Bolshevism in, 270; King Carol in, 57; (see also Carol (King of Romania)); land reform in, 262; late development economic policy and, 55; Legionary Worker Corps in, 290; literacy rates increases in, 265; map of, 262; Maygars in, 286; nation-statism in, 292; NPP in, 241, 263; organic nationalism in, 262, 272, 286; pogroms in, 270, 285; role of agrarian landlords in, 52; role of Eastern Orthodox Church in, 262, 271; role of education in, 265; role of military in, 275; socialism in, 294; suffrage movements in, 263; Szeklers in, 286

Romanov Dynasty, 33

Rosenberg, Alfred, 278

Russia: Bolshevism in, 37; civil war in, 37, 59; militarism in, 36; Zemstvo intelligentsia in, 35

SA Army (Nazi Party), 167; economic demographics for, 167; effect of Great Depression on, 167–168

Schmitt, Carl, 201, 278; on fall of Weimar Republic, 200; religious background of, 76–77; role in Weimar Republic, 200; on welfare benefits, 76

Schutzbund paramilitary, 219, 231, 232; formation of, 229; population of, 231

Schwammberger, Josef, 223

Segura, Cardinal, 323

semi-authoritarianism, 44–45, 77, 193; CEDA and, 332; development of Nazism and, 76; “dual states” and, 44; electoral process under, 44; fiscal/social policies under, 45; Jewish pogroms and, 44; late economic development and, 64; nation-statism and, 44; role of monarchies in, 44

semi-reactionary authoritarianism; fascist ideology under, 45; paramilitarism and, 45; role of minorities within, 45

Sima, Horia, 280, 281, 290, 291

Sindicatos Libres (free unions), 303, 304, 306; fascism and, 303–304

Single Party, The (Manoilescu), 278

Social Darwinism, 6, 82; in Germany, 83

social power: control within, 5; sources of, 5, 137

social welfare, 76

socialism: fascist violence and, 114–115; in Germany, 182; ideology of, 35; labor strikes and, 116; Maximalist party and, 117; membership increases for, 124; military organization within, 122; nineteenth-century development of, 81; organized leagues within, 117; proletariat as part of, 119; role of paramilitarism in, 121; role of revolution for, 121; in Spain, 315; tenets of, 230; transnationalism and, 81; voting demographics and, 115, 124; vs. fascism, 117

Socialist Nationalism, 6

“Socialists of the Professor’s Chair,” 35

Sonderweg, 42, 139

Sotelo, Calvo, 305, 316

Sources of Social Power, The (Mann), vii, 48, 78

South Africa, 38

Soviet Union. See Russia

Spain, 1, 37, 41, 42, 54, 297; Acción Española Party in, 326; Acción Popular Party in, 329; anarcho-syndicalism in, 300, 314–315, 327, 348; Army of Africa and, 337; authoritarianism in, 41, 57, 306, 324; capitalism in, 62, 325; CEDA in, 329, 348; center-left party in, 315, 317, 322, 323, 324, 327, 348; center-right party in, 318, 322, 323, 324–325, 326, 337, 339, 349; Civil Guards in, 347; civil war in, 297, 334, 348; corporatism in, 306; economic history of, 298; effect of Catalan independence on, 319; effect of Great Depression on, 298; effect of late economic development on, 305; effect of revolution ideology in, 320; effects of political violence in, 313, 320, 335, 349; electoral demography of, 309, 335; electoral processes of, 309; ethnic/political cleansing in, 342; Falange Party in, 313, 334, 335–336, 338; Franco, Francisco, in, 339; growth of fascism in, 303, 317, 334, 350–351, 363; Guardia Civile in, 326; importance of Hispanidad to, 302; industrial growth in, 300; interwar regimes in, 45; Jesuits in, 323; Jurados Mixtos in, 316, 326; labor unions in, 311–312; land reform in, 327, 328; Marxism in, 315, 320, 348; militarism in, 36, 337, 342; and Morocco, 337; Nationalist Party in, 342; parliamentary structure of, 301; per capita income (interwar), 54; political conservatism in, 325, 329; regional economic geography of, 299–300; regionalism in, 300, 302; regions/provinces of, 299, 335; Renovación Espanola Party in, 326, 333, 339; republic regimes in, 298; Republican Center Party in, 321–322; rise of organic nationalism within, 16, 302, 303, 332, 333, 339, 387; role of Agrarian Party in, 327, 333; role of armed forces in, 301; role of Bourbon monarchy in, 301, 302; role of Catholic Church in, 299, 301, 324, 328–329, 332, 346; role of democratic process in, 325; role of integralismo in, 307, 308, 318; role of latifundistas in, 326, 327; semi-authoritarianism in, 297; socialism in, 315, 317, 320–321; Socialist Party in, 328; voting demographics in, 308–309; during World War I, 302, 345

Spanish Army, 301; military statism and, 301

Spanish Civil War: political reprisals during, 343–344; total killed during, 342–343

Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rightists. See CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rightists)

Spann, Othmar, 220

squadristi, 102, 103, 104, 112, 115, 117, 120, 122; government support for, 115; idealism of, 112; leadership of, 111; social demographics of, 103

SS Army (Nazi Party), 167; economic demographics of, 167; paramilitary discipline of, 175; social mobility within, 169; use of violence by, 175

Stahlhelm paramilitary, 151, 155, 198; organization within, 151; social activism within, 171

Stalin, Leo, 61

Stangl, Franz, 220

statism, 14; authoritarianism as part of, 14; leadership principle within, 14; totalitarianism vs., 14

Sternhell, Zeev, 2

Strasser, Gregor, 21, 181, 183, 196

Strasser, Otto, 183

Sturdza, Michael (Prince of Romania), 280

Sturzo, Dom, 126

“successor states,” 67

suffrage movements: democratic “participation” and, 71; development of, 72; in Italy, 95; in Romania, 263; Schmitt, Carl, on, 75

Szálasi, Ferenc, 244, 245, 246; ideology of, 247; racial theories of, 246–247

“Szeged Idea,” 240, 241

Taliban, 374

Tenant’s Party, Nazi Party effect on, 191

“The Final Solution,” vii

theo-democracy, 372

Theory of Protection and International Trade, The (Manoilescu), 277

“total” war, 68

totalitarianism, statism vs., 11–14

transcendence, 14–15, 16, 34; economic demographics and, 26–27

transnational power relations, 35

Transylvania, fascism in, 286

“trench power,” 102

Trianon, Treaty of (1920), 74, 240

Turkish Special Forces of viii, 283

turno pacifico (peaceful change), 297, 324

Unamuno, Cortes, 323

Unión Patriotica, 305

unions, 60; internal commissions and, 123; regional demographics, 117; role in Italy, 94; “scabs” and, 116, 117

Versailles, Treaty of, 74

Vienna, Austria, 215, 219, 225; Jewish population in, 225; Nazi youth in, 226; numerus clausus in, 226

Vlkaams Blok Party, 367

Volk, 6, 9; “Generation of 1914” and, 149, 150, 283

völkisch nationalism, 150, 164; agrarian representation within, 180; anti-Semitism and, 84

Volksgemeinschaft (organic community), 143, 181; in Hungary, 247; ideology of, 190, 202

Volksunie Party, 367

Waldheim, Kurt, 207

Wandervogel movement, Nazism and, 150

Weber, Eugene, 77, 239

Weber, Max, 8, 69, 201, 357

Weimar Republic, 40, 75, 139; anti-Semitism and, 144; authoritarianism and, 194; Bolshevism and, 144; capitalism during, 194; capitalists as part of, 201; Constitution of, 183; downfall of, 200, 201; effect of Great Depression on, 194, 195–196; elite classes in, 194; labor laws during, 195; Nazi Party during, 199; population of, 140; role of news organizations in, 197; taxation during, 195. See also Germany

Weltanschauung (view of the world), 10, 11–14, 79, 140, 144, 181, 370

Why I Believe in the Victory of the Legionary Movement (Eliade), 278

Wilson, Woodrow, 37

women: Nazi ideology and, 147; role in Legion of the Archangel Saint Michael, 272; role in Nazism, 147–148; role in PNF, 101–102

World War I: Austro-fascism and, 208; class theory and, 97; effect on citizen warfare, 65; effect on Germany, 139; effect on Hungary, 238; effect on youth culture, 149; fascism as result of, 360; militarism as effect of, 36, 89; sovereign parliamentary development after, 72, 73; “successor states” and, 67

World War II, vii, 135; effect on Italy, 136; fascism during, vii

Yugoslavia, 38

Zog (King of Albania), 45