The Cost of Counterterrorism

Index

A and others v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, 335

Abbasi, Feroz, 89, 90

Abbott, Diane, 63

Abdalla, Suleiman, 75

Abdullah, Abu, 295

Abu Ghraib

   denial of abuses at, 100

   exposure of abuses at, 100

   Geneva Conventions, effect of suspension of, 102

   inquiries into abuses at, 101–102

   international inquiries into abuses at, 102–103

   military intelligence, role of, 102

   public reaction to abuses at, 100–101

   report on, 102

   specific techniques used at, 101–102

Accountability in counterterrorism. See Transparency and accountability in counterterrorism

Ackner, Lord, 17

Acxiom, 185

Adams, David, 56–57

Adams, Gerry, 126, 128, 293

Adams, Jan, 254

Adams, John, 276

Aden, Abdirisak, 178

Administrative efficiency, effect of counterterrorism on, 28

Admissibility of evidence

   interception of communications, recommendation re, 354

   RIPA, under, 200–201

   torture, evidence obtained through

     Convention Against Torture and, 113

     ECHR and, 113

     Guantánamo Bay, 92–93

Advanced Research and Development Activity, 258

ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement), 259–260

AEDPA. See Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996

Afghanistan War

   Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 76, 78, 81, 82

   Guantánamo Bay, and indefinite detention at, 74

   Taliban (See Taliban)

Agiza, Ahmed, 106

al-Barakaat, 177–178, 180

Alberts, Bruce, 309

Albright, Madeline, 149

Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 (US), 23, 276, 277, 291

al-Itihaad al-Islamiya, 177

Allen, Lew, 224

al Qaeda

   designated foreign terrorist organization, as, 149, 154, 166

   enemy combatants, as, 77–78, 82

   funding of

     alternative remittances, 157–158

     amounts required, 153–154

     bin Laden, by, 146–147, 154, 156

     changes in methods, 347

al Qaeda (cont.)

     charitable sources, 154

     diamond trade, through, 156–157

     drug trade, through, 156–157

     foreign sources, 156

     Saudi sources, 154

   Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 77–78, 80, 81, 82, 87–88

   lack of awareness by United States, 154

   organizational structure of, 154

   prisoners of war, as, 81

al Sanabil Association for Relief and Development, 180

al Taqwa, 171, 179

Alternative remittances, 157–158, 180–181

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 301

American Bankers Association, 162

American Civil Liberties Union, 227, 249–250, 255, 270

American Friends Service Committee, 227

American Library Association, 240, 343

Americans for Democratic Action, 227

American Society for Microbiology, 296–297

American Society of Newspaper Editors, 343

Amsterdam Treaty, 6

Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement (ADVISE), 259–260

Anelay, Baroness, 69

Anti-Drug Abuse Act (US), 151, 152

Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act (UK)

   criticism of, 58

   data protection under

     avoiding detection under, 211

     ECHR and, 212

     expansion beyond terrorism information, 210–211

     overview, 210

     proportionality, 211–212

     USA PATRIOT Act compared, 210–211

     voluntary code of practice, 210

   financial counterterrorism under

     forfeiture of assets, 141–142

     freezing of assets, 142

     minimal impact of, 142

     open warrants, 142

     reporting requirements, 142

   indefinite detention under, 58

   knowledge-based speech under, 310

   port and border controls under, 214

   reports by judiciary under, 265

   speed of enactment, 11

Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 (US)

   designation of unlawful organizations under, 312

   domestic rebellion and, 26

   financial counterterrorism under

     due process and, 150

     financial transactions with foreign governments, 149

     freedom of speech and, 150–151

     judicial authority, 149–150

     material support for terrorist organizations, 149

     overview, 123, 148, 149

   habeas corpus under, 16

   interception of communications under, 13

Aqeel, Aqeel al-, 176–177

Arar, Maher, 108, 111

Armey, Dick, 252, 270

Armstrong, Colin, 144

Armstrong, Robert, 328

Army Field Manual, 98

Arnaout, Enaam, 171

Ashcroft, John

   Abu Ghraib, on, 100

   business records, on obtaining, 234

   citizen reporting programs and, 254

   emergency warrants and, 235

   executive detention and, 311

   FOIA and, 342

   funding requests, 13

   Geneva Conventions, on applicability of, 82

   National Security Letters, on, 238

   TIPS and, 252

   Truong case, on, 234

   USA PATRIOT Act and

     advocacy of, 1

     Congressional testimony of, 1–2

     defense of, 26, 270

     opponents of, on, 2

   “wall” between investigation and prosecution, and elimination of, 249

Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145

ATCSA. See Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act

Atkins, Humphrey, 36

Atlas, Ronald, 296

Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (US), 298, 301, 330

Atomic Energy Commission, 301

AT&T, 244–245

Attorney-client privilege under Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order, 140, 141

Aufhauser, David, 169

Authorization for Use of Military Force (US), 9, 71, 83, 244

Aziz, Shaukat, 118

Baez, Joan, 227

Bailey, Adrian, 355

Baker, George, 338

Baker, James, 155

Bank Secrecy Act Advisory Group, 152

Bank Secrecy Act (US), 151, 161, 162

Barot, Dhiren, 333

Barr, Bob, 252, 270

Bassam, Lord, 213

Bates, Richard Dawson, 37

Beaver, Diana E., 95–96

Begg, Moazzam, 89, 90, 120

Beggs, Roy, 355

Belfast Workers’ Film Guild, 292

Bellinger, John, 9

Benefits of counterterrorism, 3

Benevolence International Foundation, 171, 180

Benevolence International Foundation v. Ashcroft, 173, 175

Berger, Sandy, 9

Bethe, Hans, 301

Bingham, Lord, 59–60, 61–63

bin Laden, Osama

   al-Barakaat and, 177

   al Qaeda, funding of, 146–147, 154, 156

   communications by, 274, 351

   designated foreign terrorist, as, 166

   Executive Order 13, 099 and, 148

Biological Weapons Convention, 296, 309

Biometric tracking, 30–31

Birkett Committee, 187, 190

“Birmingham Six,” 294

Bishra, Shukry, 172

Black, Cofer, 103

Black, Hugo, 11, 322

“Black lists,” 357

Blackman, Honor, 67

Blackstone, William, 35, 39, 49, 191, 290

Blair, Ian, 66

Blair, Tony

   control orders and, 65

   glorification of terrorism, on, 294–295, 339

   minority groups, on, 27

   Northern Ireland, on, 138

   security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4

   war model versus criminal law model, on, 7–8, 10

Blears, Hazel, 27

“Bloody Sunday,” 38

Bloomfield, Kenneth, 293

Blunkett, David, 47, 63

Border controls. See Port and border controls

Boyd-Carpenter, John Archibald, 50

Brandeis, Louis, 221, 279, 280

Brandenburg v. Ohio, 282–283, 298, 315, 316, 335

Brennan, William J., Jr., 24, 221

Breyer, Stephen, 20, 84

Bridger Tracker software, 169–170

Britani, Abu Esa al, 333

British Broadcasting Corporation, 293, 294, 308, 327–328

British Union of Fascists, 288

Brittain, Leon, 132

Brown, H. Rap, 225

Brownell, Herbert, 220

Bugging. See Interception of communications

Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 181

Bureau of Investigation. See Federal Bureau of Investigation

Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, 224

Burger, Warren E., 227

Burnside, David, 144

Bush, George H.W.

   Saudi links, 155

   torture, on, 111

Bush, George W.

   al-Barakaat, on, 177

   citizen reporting programs and, 252

   Convention Against Torture, on, 100

   enemy combatant status, on, 82

   financial counterterrorism, on, 165, 167, 172

   Geneva Conventions, on applicability of, 80

   patriotism, appeals to, 13

   state of emergency, declaration of, 71

   war model versus criminal law model, on, 7

Butler, Bill, 90

Butt, Hassan, 295

Bybee, Jay, 95

Cainkar, Louise, 118, 168

Cairde Sinn Féin, 128

Cambone, Stephen A., 247

Cameras, surveillance by. See Closed-circuit television, surveillance by

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, 326

Campbell, Duncan, 327–328

CAPS (Computer Assisted Passenger Screening) program, 255

Carlile, Lord, 115, 354

Carlucci, Frank, 155

Carlyle Group, 155

Carnivore, 250

Carter, Jimmy

   classified information under, 320

   Privacy Act and, 229

   surveillance oversight under, 265

Casement Park trials, 215

Casey Foundation, 118, 168

Castro, Fidel, 121

Catania, Giusto, 179

Cavada, Jean-Marie, 179

Cavendish, Anthony, 308

Censorship and terrorism, 273–274

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 297

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

   al Qaeda, investigation of, 154

   Counter Terrorism Center, 147

   data mining, 257

   financial counterterrorism, role in

     focus on, 158

     overview, 146–147

   FOIA exception, 343

   indefinite detention, role in, 103–104

   interception of communications by, 223

   MKULTRA, 270

   nondisclosure agreements, 318–320

   Octopus, 257

   Operation CHAOS, 223, 227

   Project BLUEBIRD/ARTICHOKE, 270

   Publications Review Board, 319

   Quantum Leap, 257

   surveillance oversight by, 265

Centre for Policy Studies, 117

Charity Commission for England and Wales, 176–177

Chase, Salmon P., 87

Cheh, Mary, 352

Cheney, Dick

   Detainee Treatment Act, on, 110–111

   financial counterterrorism, on, 165

   Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, on, 19

   Qur’an desecration, on, 119

   Secretary of Defense, as, 272

   Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 262

Chertoff, Michael, 159, 169

Chief Surveillance Commissioner, 198, 204

Choicepoint, 185, 186

Christian, George, 240

Church, Frank, 223, 228

Church Committee, 228–229, 249, 253

Churchill, Winston, 7, 36

Churchill-Coleman, George, 117

CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency

CIFA, 245, 246–248

Citizen Corps program, 253–254

Citizen reporting programs

   arguments in favor of, 252–253

   Citizen Corps program, 253–254

   Coastal Beacon, 252

   dangers of, 253

   Highway Watch, 252

   Marine Watch, 252

   misuse of information, 253

   Terrorism Information and Prevention System (TIPS), 251–252

   Transportation Security Administration, 252

Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43 (UK)

   designation of unlawful organizations under, 313

   ECHR and, 55

   expansion of powers under, 15

   financial counterterrorism under, 129

   forfeiture of assets under, 131

   generally, 12

   indefinite detention under, 36–37

   jurisdictional issues, 112

   legality of, 39

   military, legality of actions, 42

   sedition under, 291

   suspension proposed, 44

   temporary provisions under, 15

   unlawful assembly under, 286–287

Clarke, Charles

   control orders, on, 61, 63, 65

   glorification of terrorism, on, 295

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 66, 68

Clarke, Kenneth, 68

Clarke, Richard, 147

Classified information, 320, 321, 343

Clinton, Bill

   IEEPA, Executive Orders under, 148

   political surveillance by, 11

   rendition, on, 104

   war model versus criminal law model, on, 9–10

Closed-circuit television, surveillance by

   United Kingdom, in

     counterterrorism, role in, 215

     Data Protection Act 1998, under, 215–216, 217

     directed surveillance, 216

     extent of, 215

     historical background, 214–215

     Peck v. United Kingdom, 216–217

   United States, in, 217–218

Closing of records

   criminal prosecutions, 326–328

   historical background, 325–326

   Official Secrets Act 1911, under, 326–328

   Official Secrets Act 1989, under, 328

   Ponting case, 327, 328

   Shayler case, 328–330

   Tisdall case, 326–327

   unauthorized communication of information, 326

   Zircon affair, 327–328

Coastal Beacon, 252

Code of Practice on Access to Government Information, 343

Code of Practice on Intrusive Surveillance, 201

Coercive interrogation

   Abu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)

   costs of, 111

   foreign policy, impact on, 120–121

   Guantánamo Bay, at (See Guantánamo Bay)

   Iraq War, in (See Iraq War)

   Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

   United Kingdom, in

     independent inquiries, 113

     judicial branch authority re, 113–114

     legislative branch authority re, 112–113

     overview, 34

   United States, in

     Army Field Manual, applicability of, 98

     Convention Against Torture, applicability of, 98

     extradition, impact on, 109

     international reaction, 106, 108–109

     judicial branch authority re, 111–112, 113–114

     judicial rulings re, 111

     legislative branch authority re, 111–112

     necessity defense and, 98

     overview, 34–35

     press, reaction of, 109

     revision of standards, 97–98

     UCMJ, applicability of, 98

Coke, Edward, 48

Cole, David, 4, 254

Combatant Status Review Tribunal, 85

Commerce Department, 209

Commissioner of Patents, 298

Committee on Public Information, 277

Communist Control Act of 1954 (US), 281

Communist Party (US), 225

Compton Committee, 113

Computer Assisted Passenger Screening (CAPS) program, 255

Computers

   ATCSA, avoiding detection under, 211

   email. See Email

   surveillance, effect on, 185, 186

Computer Sciences Corporation, 248

Condon, Lord, 117

Confiscation of assets. See Forfeiture of assets

Congress. See generally Legislative branches

Congressional Research Service, 340

Contempt of Court Act 1981 (UK), 326

Continuity Irish Republican Army, 128

Control orders

   Islamist threat in United Kingdom and (See Islamist threat in United Kingdom)

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005

     concessions by government, 70–71

     criminal law, extension to, 22

     restrictions on, 70

Convention Against Torture

   admissibility of evidence and, 113

   coercive interrogation, applicability to, 98

   extraordinary rendition and, 105

   Guantánamo Bay, impact on use of torture at, 92, 93

   Iraq War and

     applicability to, 110

     coercive interrogation, applicability to, 99

   requirements under, 93–94

   United States and

     limitations on, 110

     ratification by, 94–95

Conventional weapons, information re, 302–306

Convention on the Rights of the Child, 91

Conyers, John, 338

Coplon, Judith, 219–220

Corbyn, Jeremy, 89

Corcoran, Thomas, 11

Council of Europe

   ATCSA, on, 58

   extraordinary rendition, on, 108

   freezing of assets, on, 178

   Guantánamo Bay, on, 91

Counterintelligence Field Activity (CIFA), 245, 246–248

Courts. See generally Judicial branches

Covert human intelligence sources, 204

Criminal Evidence (NI) Order 1999 (UK), 355

Criminal Justice Act 1988 (UK), 143

Criminal Justice Act 1993 (UK), 135–136

Criminal Justice Act 2003 (UK), 46–47

Criminal Justice (International Cooperation) Act 1990 (UK), 136

Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998 (UK), 137–138, 139, 315, 317

Criminal law

   closing of records and, 326–328

   Diplock Courts, in, 46–47

   extraordinary rendition and

     criminal complaints re, 107

     trial, unrelated to, 104–105

   intrusion of counterterrorism into

     mechanisms for, 15–16

     Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, 22, 71

     reasons for, 350

   National Security Letters and

     criminal penalties for violating gag orders, 240–241

     intrusion into criminal law, 238, 243

   Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, criminal charges under, 132

   surveillance, use of inaccurate information obtained through, 267

   USA PATRIOT Act, intrusion of, 16, 233–234

   war model of counterterrorism compared (See War model versus criminal law model of counterterrorism)

Criminal Law Act 1967 (UK), 191

Critical infrastructure information, 342

Cromwell, Oliver, 49

Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, 95

Culture of restraint

   importance of, 336–337

   inquiries, role of, 337–338

Customs and Excise

   ATCSA and, 144

   data protection and, 210

   drug trafficking and, 136, 137, 138

   financial counterterrorism and, 145

   interception of communications by, 188, 189, 194

   organized crime and, 140

   port and border controls and, 213, 214

Daley, Richard M., 217

Dalyell, Tam, 327

Dam, Kenneth, 154

DA-Notices, 307. See also D–Notice system

Data mining

   Advanced Research and Development Activity, 258

   ADVISE, 259–260

   centralized clearinghouse of information, 260

   CIA, 257

   dangers of, 260–261

   Defense Intelligence Agency, 257

   Education Department, 257

   Genoa II, 258

   Homeland Security Department, 257, 259–260

   Information Awareness Office, 184–185

   Information Awareness Prototype System, 258

   Insight Smart Discovery, 257

   intrusiveness of, 260

   Justice Department, 257

   Notebook I2, 257

   Octopus, 257

   overview, 256–257

   Pathfinder, 257

   Project Strikeback, 257

   Quantum Leap, 257

   Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype Environment, 257

   Technology and Privacy Advisory Committee, 258–259

   Terrorism Information Awareness, 258

   Total Information Awareness, 184, 257–258

   Verity K2 Enterprise, 257

Data protection

   European Union, in

     Data Protection Directive, 207

     expansion beyond terrorism information, 211

     opt-in standard, 208

     overview, 206–207

     specific protections, 208

     third countries, transfer of information to, 208

     United States, transfer of information to, 208–209

   overview, 206

   United Kingdom, in

     ATCSA, under (See Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act)

     Customs and Excise, role of, 210

     RIPA, under, 209–210

   United States, in

     overview, 208

     Safe Harbor, 209

Data Protection Act 1998 (UK), 215–216, 217

Data Protection Principles 1998 (UK), 212

Davis, David, 28, 64, 65

Debs, Eugene, 279

Debs v. United States, 279

Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 (US), 342

Defense Department

   interception of communications by, 223

   Operation CONUS, 223, 227–228

   Project CHATTER, 270

   surveillance by

     CIFA, 245, 246–248

     Northern Command Intelligence Units, 244, 246

     Operation Eagle Eyes, 245

     overview, 184, 243

     privacy, impact on, 248

     TALON program, 245–246

Defense Intelligence Agency

   al-Barakaat and, 177

   data mining, 257

   Insight Smart Discovery, 257

   Pathfinder, 257

   surveillance by, 184, 244, 245, 248

   surveillance oversight by, 265

   Verity K2 Enterprise, 257

Defense of the Realm Acts 1914–15 (UK), 15, 313

Defense of the Realm Consolidation Act (UK), 287

Delahunty, Robert J., 76–78, 79

Delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236

Denham, John, 63

Dennis v. United States, 281, 282

Dergoul, Tarek, 90, 120

Designation of unlawful organizations

   AEDPA, under, 312

   Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43, under, 313

   ECHR and, 312

   freedom of speech, effect on (See Speech, freedom of)

   Human Rights Act 1998, under, 313

   Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

   Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 314

   Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 314–315

   Sinn Féin, 314

Detainee Treatment Act (US)

   Guantánamo Bay, and indefinite detention at, 85–86

   habeas corpus and, 21

   legislative branch authority under, 112

   torture, amendments to prohibit

     adoption of, 110–111

     opposition to, 110–111

     support for, 110

Detention. See Executive detention; Indefinite detention

Detention of Terrorists Order (UK), 42, 55

Devlin, Bernadette, 44

Dicey, Albert, 5

Diplock, Lord, 43, 330

Diplock Committee, 113

Diplock Courts

   advantages, 44–45

   Catholics, effect on, 46

   confessions in, 57

   creation of, 15–16

   criminal law in, 46–47

   disadvantages, 44–45

   evidence rules in, 46

   foreign policy, impact on, 46

   judicial authority of, 25

   juries, elimination of, 45

   non-terrorist cases in, 46–47

   peers, elimination of, 45–46

   procedural safeguards, 45

   public support for, 45

   reaction to, 44

   recommendations re, 44

Directed surveillance, 203–204, 216

Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 5 (MI5)

   exposure of secret programs, 193–194

   Hewitt and Harman v. United Kingdom and, 192–193

   interception of communications by, 188–189, 195

   safeguards on, 335

   Security Service Act 1989/1996, under, 194

Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 6 (MI6), 189, 195, 335

Director of National Intelligence, 263, 265

D-Notice system, 298, 307–308. See also D–Notices

Docusearch.com, 185

Dodds, Nigel, 355

Doe v. Ashcroft, 239–240

Doe v. Gonzales, 240

Domestic rebellion in United States, historical background, 26

Donaldson, Lord, 68

Dostum, Rashid, 75

Douglas, William O., 11, 221, 228, 322

Drug Trafficking Act 1994 (UK), 136–137

Drug Trafficking Act 1996 (UK), 143

Drug trafficking and financial counterterrorism

   additional offenses, 137

   assumptions re proceeds, 135–136

   cash, seizure of, 137

   Criminal Justice Act 1993, 135–136

   Customs and Excise, role of, 136, 137, 138

   forfeiture of assets, 132–133, 135, 136–137

   freezing of assets, 132–133

   introduction of measures, 132

   money laundering and, 136

   overview, 132

   standard of proof, 136, 137

Drug Trafficking Offenses Act 1986 (UK), 132, 133, 136

Due process

   AEDPA, under, 150

   financial counterterrorism and, 150, 174

   property rights and, 174

   security and, 29–30

Dunlavey, Michael, 74, 95

Dworkin, Ronald, 67

Echelon, 272

ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights

Economic activity, impact of counterterrorism, 28, 271–272

Education Department, 257

Eighth Amendment, 92

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 281

Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 (US), 235, 241

Electronic Frontier Foundation, 244

Electronic Privacy Information Center, 250, 343

Electronic surveillance. See Interception of communications

Ellsberg, Daniel, 11

Email

   ATCSA and, 211

   Carnivore and, 250

   keystroke programs and, 251

   Magic Lantern and,

   National Security Letters, use of, 237–238

   RIPA and, 205–206, 209–210

   Terrorist Surveillance Program, 244–245

Emergency Provisions Act 1973. See Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973

Encrypted data under RIPA, 205

Enemy combatants

   al Qaeda as, 77–78, 82

   Combatant Status Review Tribunal, 85

   customary international law, under, 79

   Geneva Conventions, applicability of

     non-expansive reading of, 78

     overview, 75–76, 79

     positivist interpretation of, 78

     suspension, power of, 78–79

   Taliban as, 78

England, Gordon, 248

English, Glenn, 183

EPA 1973. See Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973

Espionage Act of 1917 (US), 23, 277–279, 322

Ethnic profiling. See Minority groups, effect of counterterrorism on

European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance, 58

European Communities Act 1992 (UK), 6

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

   admissibility of evidence obtained through torture, 113

   Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998 and, 138

   data protection and, 212

   derogation from by United Kingdom, 58

   designation of unlawful organizations and, 312

   Diplock Courts and, 44

   executive detention and, 312

   extradition and, 109

   forfeiture of assets and, 143

   freezing of assets and, 178

   Halford v. United Kingdom and, 195–196

   hate speech and, 289

   Hewitt and Harman v. United Kingdom and, 193

   interception of communications and

     Interception of Communications Act 1985, 192

     RIPA, 195, 197, 198

     Security Service Act 1989/1996, 192, 194, 195

   Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56

   Islamist threat in United Kingdom and

     control orders, 63–64

     indefinite detention, 59, 61

     torture, 61

   judicial review and, 20

   R. v. Khan and, 201–202

   knowledge-based speech and, 298

   Malone case and, 190–192

   media ban and, 294

   Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogation in, 51

   Official Secrets Act 1989 and, 328

   Peck v. United Kingdom and, 216–217

   political speech and, 283, 296

   security versus freedom paradigm and, 5–6

   Shayler case and, 328–330

   “Spycatcher” case and, 328

   surveillance and, 183–184

   surveillance oversight and, 264–265

   unlawful assembly and, 289–290

European Court of Human Rights. See generally European Convention on Human Rights

European Court of Justice, 6, 178

European Parliament, 108, 179

European Union, data protection in. See Data protection

Evidence rules

   admissibility of evidence (See Admissibility of evidence)

   Diplock Courts, in, 46

   Federal Rules of Evidence, 163

   freedom of speech, effect on

     United Kingdom, in, 316–317

     United States, in, 315–316

Ewing, Keith, 327

Executive branches

   expansion of powers, 10, 334

   financial counterterrorism, deference in, 174–175

   freedom of speech and

     deference to executive branch in, 330

     expansion of authority in, 275–276

   safeguards, importance of, 334–335

   separation of powers and, 11

   slow accretion of power, dangers of, 359

   surveillance oversight and

     United Kingdom, in, 265–266

     United States, in, 265

   war model versus criminal law model and

     range of powers sought, differences in, 9

     source of authority of power, differences in, 9

Executive detention

   ECHR and, 312

   freedom of speech, effect on

     United Kingdom, in, 312

     United States, in, 311–312

Executive Office for Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes, 159

Executive Order 10,450 (US), 281

Executive Order 12,947 (US), 148, 166–167

Executive Order 13,099 (US), 148

Executive Order 13,224 (US)

   financial counterterrorism under

     Executive Order 12,947 distinguished, 166–167

     groups monitored under, 167–168

     issuance of, 166

     limited impact of, 167

     mere association standard, 166

     overview, 123, 147

   forfeiture of assets under, 170

   Specially Designated Terrorist List, 166

Executive Order 13,292 (US), 321

Export Administration Act of 1979 (US), 149

Export Control Act 2002 (UK), 298, 310

Expression, freedom of. See Speech, freedom of

Extradition, impact of coercive interrogation by United States on, 109

Extraordinary rendition

   Convention Against Torture and, 105

   criminal law and

     complaints re, 107

     trial, unrelated to, 104–105

   extent of, 105

   Geneva Conventions and, 106

   Guantánamo Bay, impact on indefinite detention at, 75

   ICCPR and, 105–106

   international inquiries, 106, 108

   international reaction, 108

   legality of, 105–106

   Refugee Convention of 1951 and, 106

   regular rendition distinguished, 104

   responsibility for, 106

   United Kingdom, reaction of, 107–108

Fadle, Jamal Ahmed al-, 156

Falconer, Lord, 35

Falklands War, 327

Faul, Father Dennis, 43, 50

Faulkner, Brian, 10, 37, 38

Fay, George, 102

FBI. See Federal Bureau of Investigation

Federal Aviation Administration, 255–256

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

   al-Barakaat and, 177

   Church Committee and, 228–229

   COINTELPRO, 223, 224–227

   financial counterterrorism, role in

     joint terrorism task forces, 158

     overview, 146

Federal Bureau (cont.)

     Terrorist Financing Operations Section, 158

   interception of communications by, 222

   Investigative Data Warehouse, 238

   No Fly List and, 254

   surveillance by

     anti-communism and, 219–220

     antiwar demonstrators, of, 249–250

     Attorney General guidelines, weakening of, 249

     Carnivore, 250

     historical background, 218–219

     library records, 228

     Magic Lantern, 250–251

     Muslims, targeting of, 312

     national security and, 220

     National Security Letters, use of, 238, 241

     political surveillance under FDR, 219

     Privacy Act and, 229

     “wall” between investigation and prosecution, elimination of, 249

   terrorism guidelines, 16

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (US), 163

Federal Rules of Evidence (US), 163

Federation of American Scientists, 299, 343

Feingold, Russ, 2

Feldman, David, 328

Fife, David Maxwell, 189

Fife Directive, 193

Fifth Amendment

   due process (See Due process)

   Guantánamo Bay, impact on use of torture at, 93

   loyalty programs and, 282

   secret evidence, and use of, 173

Films, banning of, 291–292

Financial Action Task Force, 137, 159, 346

Financial counterterrorism

   charitable contributions, impact on, 168–169

   drug trafficking and (See Drug trafficking and financial counterterrorism)

   due process and, 150, 174

   erosion of rights resulting from, 168, 171

   executive branches, deference to, 174–175

   forfeiture of assets (See Forfeiture of assets)

   freezing of assets (See Freezing of assets)

   intent requirement, elimination of, 171–172

   money laundering and (See Money laundering and financial counterterrorism)

   Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

   organized crime and

     Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order (See Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order)

     generally, 139

     Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996, 139–140

   political costs of, 175–176, 181

   preventing funding of terrorists, difficulty in, 126

   privacy, impact on, 169

   property rights, impact on, 170, 174

   Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish Republican Army)

   purposes of, 122

   racketeering law and, 134–135

   searches and, 174

   secret evidence, use of

     alternatives to, 173–174

     arguments re, 172–173

     Benevolence International Foundation v. Ashcroft, 173

     Fifth Amendment concerns, 172–173

     Global Relief Foundation, Inc. v. O’Neill, 173

     risks of, 173

     ruling on merits of case based on, 173

     Sixth Amendment concerns, 172

   stigmatization and, 175

   United Kingdom, in

     Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145

     ATCSA, under (See Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act)

     costs of, 145–146

     Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy) Act 1998, under, 137–138, 139

     Customs and Excise, role of, 145

     Money Laundering Regulations, 145

     National Witness Protection Program, 146

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1991, under, 134

     open warrants, 142

     overview, 122–123

     POCA, under (See Proceeds of Crime Act 2002)

     post-9/11, 141–145

     pre-9/11, 130–131

     Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989, under, 133

     Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 130, 131

     reporting requirements, 142

     Serious Organized Crime Agency, 146

     Terrorism Act 2000, under, 138–139, 170–171

   United States, in

     AEDPA, under (See Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996)

     alternative remittances, impact on, 180–181

     CIA, role of (See Central Intelligence Agency)

     drug trafficking and, 181

     Executive Order 13,224, under (See Executive Order 13,224)

     FBI, role of (See Federal Bureau of Investigation)

     FinCEN, role of, 158–159

     Homeland Security Department, role of, 158, 159–160

     IEEPA, under (See International Emergency Economic Powers Act)

     Immigration and Customs Enforcement, role of, 158, 159–160

     ineffectiveness of, 179

     interagency disputes, 159–160

     international reaction, 179

     IRS, role of, 158

     Justice Department, role of, 158

     Latin America, impact in, 181

     Muslim charities, targeting of, 179–180

     OFAC (See Office of Foreign Assets Control)

     Operation Cornerstone, 159–160

     Operation Green Quest, 159

     overview, 123

     post-9/11, 158–160

     pre-9/11, 147

     SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach to Reducing Exploitation), 159–160

     Trading with the Enemy Act, under, 147–149

     Treasury Department, role of, 159

     USA PATRIOT Act, under (See USA PATRIOT Act)

Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN)

   financial counterterrorism, role in, 158–159

   Suspicious Activity Reports and, 349

   USA PATRIOT Act, and searches of records under, 162–163

Financial institutions, regulation under USA PATRIOT Act, 161–163, 169–170

Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order

   attorney-client privilege under, 140, 141

   debate re, 140–141

   general solicitors’ circulars, 140, 141

   introduction, 139

   investigations under, 140

   Parliamentary Northern Ireland Grand Committee, consideration in, 141

Financial Investigative Units, 349

Fine, Glenn, 242

First Amendment. See Speech, freedom of

FISA. See Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act

FISA Court. See Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court

Flags and Emblems Act 1954 (UK), 15

FOIA. See Freedom of Information Act

Ford, Gerald, 228–229

Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act (US), 105

Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 (US), 128, 163

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (US)

   applications for surveillance, 230–231

   drawbacks of, 232

   expansion of executive powers under, 10

   financial counterterrorism under, 173, 174

   overview, 229–230, 232

   pen registers, 231–232

   probable cause and, 230–231, 232, 233–234

   surveillance oversight in United Kingdom compared, 265

   trap and trace devices, 231–232

   United Kingdom compared, 232

   USA PATRIOT Act amending (See USA PATRIOT Act)

   warrantless searches under, 231

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, 230–231, 233, 263–264, 340–341

Foreign policy

   coercive interrogation, impact of, 120–121

   counterterrorism, effect of, 28

   Diplock Courts, impact of, 46

   indefinite detention, impact of, 120–121

Forfeiture of assets. See also Freezing of assets

   intent requirement, elimination of, 171–172

   Sinn Féin, 131

   United Kingdom, in

     ATCSA, under, 141–142

     Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43, under, 131

     Criminal Justice Act 1993, under, 135, 136

     Drug Trafficking Act 1994, under, 136–137

     drug trafficking and, 132–133, 135, 136–137

Forfeiture of assets (cont.)

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 131–132

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1991, under, 134, 136

     Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989, under, 133–134

     Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 131, 132

     Terrorism Act 2000, under, 138–139

   United States, in

     Executive Order 13, 224, under, 170

     USA PATRIOT Act, under, 163, 170

Formal inquiry into terrorism, lack of, 13–14

Forsyth, Frederick, 67

Fortesque, John, 48–49

Fourth Amendment

   Bank Secrecy Act of 1970 and, 151–152

   Katz v. United States, 220–221

   keystroke programs and, 251

   searches (See Searches)

   surveillance and

     avoidance of, 269

     executive authority and, 220

   Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244

   USA PATRIOT Act, and warrantless searches under, 234

   warrants (See Warrants)

Fox, Charles James, 291

Frank, Barney, 165

Frankfurter, Felix, 32, 62, 281, 283, 359

Fraser, Ronald, 309

Freedom of Information Act (US)

   Carnivore and, 250

   CIA exception, 343

   knowledge-based speech and, 299

   national security exception, 22

   No Fly List and, 255

   NSA exception, 342–343

   political groups, exposure of surveillance of, 249

   TALON program and, 246

   transparency and accountability and

     critical infrastructure information, 342

     national security and, 342

     overview, 341–342

     presumptions re, 342

   United Kingdom compared, 343–345

Freedom of speech. See Speech, freedom of

Freedom versus security paradigm. See Security versus freedom paradigm

Freezing of assets. See also Forfeiture of assets

   United Kingdom, in

     ATCSA, under, 142

     drug trafficking and, 132–133

   United States, in

     al-Barakaat, 177–178

     “black lists,” 357

     conflict of interest in, 175

     false designations, 178–179

     IEEPA, under, 148–149

     insufficient evidence, based on, 176

     international reaction, 177

     Palestinian Relief and Development Fund, 176–177

     unbalanced inclusion of names on lists, 357–358

     USA PATRIOT Act, under, 163

     verification of information, recommendation re, 357

Frohwerk v. United States, 278–279

Fulbright, J. William, 227

Funding

   al Qaeda (See al Qaeda)

   Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish Republican Army)

   Sinn Féin, 126

Gabriel, Peter, 67

Gaddafi, Moammar, 128

Gardiner, Lord, 47, 50, 52–54

Gardiner Committee, 113

Gaylor, Noel, 254

Gearty, Conor, 67, 327

Gejdenson, Sam, 272

General Accounting Office, 229, 262, 342

General Belgrano, 327

Geneva Conventions

   Abu Ghraib, effect of suspension on abuses at, 102

   Afghanistan War, applicability in, 76, 78, 81, 82

   al Qaeda, applicability to, 77–78, 80, 81, 82, 87–88

   enemy combatants, applicability to (See Enemy combatants)

   extraordinary rendition and, 106

   Guantánamo Bay and

     generally, 20

     torture, impact on use of, 92

   Iraq War and

     applicability to, 76, 110

     coercive interrogation, applicability to, 98–99

   non-expansive reading of, 78

   Northern Ireland, applicability to

     coercive interrogation in, 50–51, 52, 53

     generally, 31, 34

   positivist interpretation of, 78

   suspension of

     advantages of, 80

     authority to suspend, 78–79

     disadvantages of, 80–81

     military discipline, effect on, 81

     reaction to, 81, 356, 358

   Taliban, applicability to, 78, 80, 81, 82

   terrorism, applicability to, 31, 34–35

   United Kingdom as party to, 48

Genoa II, 258

Ghaffur, Tarique, 117

“Ghost detainees,” 103

Gidari, Al, 237

Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, 84, 240, 267

Gitlow v. New York, 280

Glanville, Ranulf de, 283

Global Relief Foundation, 174, 175

Global Relief Foundation, Inc. v. O’Neill, 173

Glorification of terrorism, 294–296

Goldsmith, Peter

   extraordinary rendition, on, 107

   Guantánamo Bay, and indefinite detention at, 89, 90

   security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4–5

Goldstein, Ritt, 251

Goldstock, Ron, 355

Gonzales, Alberto

   Convention Against Torture, on, 110

   Geneva Conventions, on applicability of, 80–81

   security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4

Gordon, Rebecca, 254

Gore, Al, 155

Government Accountability Office, 160

Government Communications Headquarters, 195, 210, 335

Government employee speech. See Privileged speech

Government of Ireland Act 1920 (UK), 40, 42

Greenpeace, 250

Grieve, Dominic, 67, 68

Guantánamo Bay

   coercive interrogation at

     deaths of detainees, 96

     development of standards, 95

     erosion of standards, 93

     extradition, impact on, 109

     international reaction, 106, 108–109

     overview, 91–92

     press, reaction of, 109

     specific techniques, 95–97

   Convention Against Torture, impact on use of torture, 92, 93

   enemy combatants at (See Enemy combatants)

   Geneva Conventions and

     generally, 20

     torture, impact on use of, 92

   habeas corpus at

     generally, 83

     Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89

     Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84

     indefinite detention and, 73

     Rasul v. Bush, 83–84

   indefinite detention at

     administrative review board, 84–85

     authorization of, 71–72

     Combatant Status Review Tribunal, 85

     Detainee Treatment Act, under, 85–86

     extraordinary rendition, impact of, 75

     foreign governments, access to detainees by, 89, 90–91

     habeas corpus and, 73

     Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89

     Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84

     high-level terrorists, 73–74

     individual analysis, lack of, 75

     international reaction, 89–91

     jurisdictional issues, 73

     low-level terrorists, 74–75

     minors, 91

     non-terrorists, 74–75

     overview, 71

     practical problems with, 72–73

     psychological effects of, 115

     Rasul v. Bush, 83–84

     security measures, 73

     separation of powers and, 72

     standards, lack of, 82–83

     treatment of detainees, 73, 90–91

     United Kingdom, reaction of, 89–90

   Qur’an desecration at, 118–120

   torture at

     admissibility of evidence, impact on, 92–93

     Convention Against Torture, impact of, 92, 93

     cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment distinguished, 95

     Eighth Amendment, impact of, 92

     erosion of standards, 93

     Fifth Amendment, impact of, 93

     Geneva Conventions, impact of, 92

     overview, 91–92

The Guardian, 284–285, 324, 325

Gul, Awal, 74

Habeas corpus

   Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, under, 16

   Civil War (US), suspension during, 276–277

   Detainee Treatment Act and, 21

   Guantánamo Bay, at (See Guantánamo Bay)

   Military Commissions Act, under, 21–22, 88–89

   Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

   United Kingdom, historical background in, 35

   USA PATRIOT Act, suspension in, 1

Habeas Corpus Act 1679 (UK), 35

Habeas Corpus Act 1862 (UK), 39

Habib, Mamdouh, 105

Hadden, Tom, 43

Hague Convention, 78

Hailsham, Lord, 338

Halford, Alison, 195–196

Halleck, Charles, 220

Hamdan, Salim Ahmed, 86

Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89, 335

Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84

Hamza, Abu, 295

Hand, Learned, 278, 280

Hanssen, Robert P., 14

Hare, David, 67

Harman, Harriet, 107, 192–193

Haskins, Lord, 67

Hastert, Dennis, 2

Hate speech, 289

Hattersley, Roy, 13

Hawkins, Nicholas, 339

Hayden, Michael V., 258

Hayes, Patrick, 215

Haynes, William, 96

Heath, Edward, 338

Henry of Bracton, 48

Herbert, Bob, 120

Heseltine, Michael, 327

Hewitt, Patricia, 192–193

Highway Watch, 252

Hill, David, 144

Hill, James T., 95–96

Hill, Pauline, 144

Hillyard, Paddy, 43

Hoffman, Lord, 60–61, 62

Hollis, Roger, 323

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 278–280

Homeland Security Act (US), 342

Homeland Security Department

   administrative efficiency and, 28

   Advanced Research Projects Agency, 259

   ADVISE, 259–260

   citizen reporting programs, 252

   creation of, 8

   data mining, 257, 259–260

   Directorate for Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection, 259

   financial counterterrorism, role in, 158, 159–160

   knowledge-based speech and, 297

   Muslims, targeting of, 312

   Notebook I2, 257

   Operation Green Quest and, 159

   SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach to Reducing Exploitation), 159–160

   surveillance by, 184, 243

   watch lists, 256

Home Office

   data retention and, 210

   films, banning of, 292

   interception of communications and, 188–190

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 and, 66

   RIPA and, 196

   surveillance warrants and, 265–266, 335

   witness protection programs and, 355

Hood, Jay W., 120

Hoon, Geoff, 89

Hoover, J. Edgar, 218–220, 225, 227, 279

Hope, Lord, 62

Horton, Scott, 105

Housing and Community Development Act (US), 151, 152

Howard, Michael, 64, 65

Human Rights Act 1998 (UK)

   complaint procedures, 197

   designation of unlawful organizations under, 313

   ECHR and, 6, 69

   indefinite detention under, 20

   interception of communications under, 196

   judicial review and, 20, 113

   R. v. Shayler and, 328–329

   treason under, 284, 285

   unlawful assembly under, 289

Human Rights Commission, 140

Human Rights Watch, 96

Humphrey, Hubert H., 11

Hunt, Paul, 108

Hurd, Douglas, 293

Hurley, Michael, 104

Hustinx, Peter, 179

ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

Identity cards, 30–31

IEEPA. See International Emergency Economic Powers Act

Immigration and Customs Enforcement

   financial counterterrorism, role in, 158, 159–160

   Operation Cornerstone, 159–160

Immigration and Naturalization Service, 174

Inaccurate information obtained through surveillance

   criminal prosecutions, use in, 267

   danger of, 266–267

   extent of, 267

   third-party collection of information, problems with, 267

Indefinite detention

   costs of, 111

   foreign policy, impact on, 120–121

   “ghost detainees,” 103

   Guantánamo Bay, at (See Guantánamo Bay)

   innocent victims, problem of, 114–115

   Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

   psychological effects of, 115

   rewards, problems with, 114–115

   United Kingdom, in

     independent inquiries, 113

     Islamist threat in United Kingdom and (See Islamist threat in United Kingdom)

     judicial branch authority re, 113

     legislative branch authority re, 112–113

     overview, 34

   United States, in

     CIA, role of, 103–104

     extent of, 103

     extraterritorial locations of, 103–104

     judicial branch authority re, 111–112

     legislative branch authority re, 111–112

     overview, 34–35

Independent Broadcasting Authority, 293, 294

Information Awareness Office, 184–185

Information Awareness Prototype System, 258

Information Security Oversight Office, 321, 342

Ingram, Adam, 139, 140–141

Inman, Bobby R., 301

Insight Smart Discovery, 257

Institute of Medicine, 332

INS v. Chadha, 149

Intelligence and Security Committee, 263, 337

Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 (US), 241

Intelligence Oversight Board, 265

Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (US), 262

Intelligence Services Act 1994 (UK)

   complaint procedures, 197

   electronic surveillance under, 201

   oversight function, 197

   overview, 187, 195

   surveillance oversight under, 263

Intelligence Services Commissioner, 197, 198, 199

Inter-American Development Bank, 157

Interception of communications

   control orders, as alternative to, 65–66

   ECHR and (See European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR))

   Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, under, 221–222

   pen registers, 231–232

   trap and trace devices, 231–232

   United Kingdom, in

     admissibility of evidence, recommendation re, 354

     Customs and Excise, by, 188, 189, 194

     Government Communications Headquarters, by, 195

     Halford case, 195–196, 202

     Hewitt and Harman case, 192–193

     historical background, 187–190

     Intelligence Services Act 1994, under, 195

     Interception of Communications Act 1985, under (See Interception of Communications Act 1985)

     Malone case, 190–192

     Metropolitan Police, by, 188, 189

     MI5, by, 188–189, 195

     MI6, by, 195

     National Crime Squad, 194

     National Criminal Intelligence Service, 194

     RIPA, under (See Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000)

     Security Service Acts 1989/1996, under (See Security Service Acts 1989/1996)

     warrant requests, 188–190

   United States, in

     domestic organizations, of, 222

     FISA, under, 231–232

     historical background, 10–11

     Katz v. United States, 220–221

     national security and, 221, 222

Interception of Communications Act 1985 (UK)

   complaint procedures, 197

   ECHR and, 192

   Halford case and, 195

   introduction of, 192

   overview, 187

   reporting process, weaknesses of, 197

Interception of Communications Commissioner, 197–198, 199

Internal Revenue Service

   financial counterterrorism, role in, 158

   surveillance by, 228

International Committee of the Red Cross, 103, 106, 115

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

   extraordinary rendition and, 105–106

   Islamist threat in United Kingdom, torture and, 62

   Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogation in, 52

International Emergency Economic Powers Act (US)

   declaration of emergency under, 148

   executive branches, deference to, 175

   Executive Orders under, 148

   financial counterterrorism under

     executive authority, broadening of, 160–161

     freezing of assets, 148–149

     overview, 123, 148

International law, United States view of, 358

International Monetary Fund, 157, 333, 346

Internet

   National Security Letters, use on Internet service providers, 237–238, 239–240

   surveillance, effect on, 185

Interrogation. See Coercive interrogation

Intrusive surveillance, 202–203

Inventions and patents, information re, 298–301

Invention Secrecy Act (US), 298, 299, 330

Investigative Data Warehouse, 238

Investigatory Powers Commissioner for Northern Ireland, 198

Investigatory Powers Tribunal, 197, 199

Iqbal, Asif, 90, 119

IRA. See Irish Republican Army

Iraq War

   Abu Ghraib (See Abu Ghraib)

   coercive interrogation in

     confusion re standards, 100

     Convention Against Torture, applicability of, 99, 110

     Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 76, 98–99, 110

     revision of standards, 98, 99–100

     specific techniques, analysis of legality of, 99

   “ghost detainees,” 103

Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56, 115

Irish Northern Aid Committee (Noraid), 128

Irish Republican Army

   Continuity IRA, 128

   Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish Republican Army)

   Real IRA, 128, 138, 346

   Sinn Féin (See Sinn Féin)

Irish Republican Publicity Bureau, 274

Irvine, Lord, 70

Isamuddin, Riduan, 165

Isikoff, Michael, 119

Islamist threat in United Kingdom

   control orders and

     concessions by government, 65

     criticism of, 63, 64

     ECHR and, 63–64

     intercept evidence as alternative, 65–66

     overview, 63

     practical effect of, 64

     press, reaction of, 64–65

   indefinite detention and

     alternatives to, 59

     ATCSA, under, 58

     criticism of, 58

     derogation from ECHR, 58

     discrimination against noncitizens, 60

     ECHR and, 59, 61

     European jurisprudence and, 59

     Law Lords on, 59–61

     liberty and, 60–61

     overview, 34

     Privy Counsellor Review Committee on, 58–59

     separation of powers and, 60

     state of emergency and, 59–60

   overview, 57–58

   torture and

     determination of, 63

     ECHR and, 61

     evidence obtained by, use of, 61

     generally, 61–63

     ICCPR and, 62

     United Nations Charter and, 62

     Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, 62

Jackson, Robert H., 19, 220, 281, 282

Jefferson, Thomas, 276

Jellicoe, Lord, 338

Jenkins, Roy, 36, 57, 314

Johnson, Lyndon, 11, 220, 221

Johnson v. Eisentrager, 83–84, 89

Joint Intelligence Task Force Combating Terrorism, 245

Joint terrorism task forces, 158

Jones, Anthony, 102

Judicial branches

   AEDPA, role under, 149–150

   assertion of authority by, 20

   authority to check executive branches, limits on, 335

   coercive interrogation, authority re

     United Kingdom, in, 113–114

     United States, in, 112, 113–114

   financial counterterrorism and, 149–150

   indefinite detention, authority re

     United Kingdom, in, 113

     United States, in, 112

   intelligence issues, deference to executive branches, 24–25

   intrusion of executive branches into, 353–354, 356

   judicial review

     United Kingdom, in, 20–21

     United States, in, 21–22

   national security issues, deference to executive branches

     United Kingdom, in, 24

     United States, in, 23–24

   oversight function, 25

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, role under, 67–68

   remedies and counterterrorism, 22–23

   scholarly reasons for limitations on authority, 25

   special courts, 25

   standing and counterterrorism, 22

   surveillance, judicial review of

     United Kingdom, in, 264–265

     United States, in, 264, 265

Jumale, Ali, 176–177

Jury trials, recommendation re, 355–356

Justice Department

   data mining, 257

   executive detention and, 312

   financial counterterrorism and, 158

   Inspector General, oversight of National Security Letters by, 242–243, 339

   National Security Letters, use of, 241

   Office of Information and Privacy, 342

   Operation Green Quest, 159

   Privacy Act and, 229

   Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype Environment, 257

   surveillance by, 184, 243

   surveillance oversight by, 265

   Terrorist Financing Unit, 158

Kaplan, Samuel, 296

Karzai, Hamid, 78

Katz v. United States, 220–221

Kavanagh, Trevor, 294

Keenan, Sean, 38–39, 40

Kelly, Clarence, 229

Kelly, Oliver, 41

Kelly, Sue, 165

Kennedy, Anthony, 22

Kennedy, Baroness, 69

Kennedy, Edward M., 252, 254, 270

Kennedy, Jane, 143

Kennedy, Robert, 11

Kern, Paul, 103

Kerry, John, 244

Keystroke programs

   Carnivore, 250

   Fourth Amendment and, 251

   Magic Lantern, 250–251

Khan, Alif, 96

Khan, Imran, 118

Khan, Irene, 117

Khan, Sultan, 201–202

Kiareldeen, Hany, 173

Kielman, Joseph, 259

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 11, 225, 227

King, Neil, 250

King’s Cross bombing, 215, 337

Klass v. Republic of Germany, 191

Knowledge-based speech

   conventional weapons, information re, 302–306

   distinguishing between threats

     ineffectiveness of restrictions, 352

     limited nature of terrorist threat, effect of, 351–352

     narrowly drawn restrictions, use of, 351, 352–353

     overview, 350–351, 353

     secrecy orders, use of, 353

Knowledge-based speech (cont.)

   ECHR and, 298

   microbiology, information re, 296–298, 309–310, 330–332, 351

   nuclear weapons, information re, 301–302, 330

   overview, 274, 298, 311

   patents and inventions, information re, 298–301

   secrecy, effect on security, 332

   United Kingdom, in

     ATCSA, under, 310

     Cavendish case, 308

     DA-Notices, 307

     D-Notice system, 298, 307–308

     Export Control Act 2002, 298, 310

     post-9/11 developments, 309

     “Spycatcher” case, 308

     Voluntary Vetting Scheme, 298, 308–309

     weapons exports and, 310–311

   United States, in

     Atomic Energy Act of 1954, under, 298, 301, 330

     Homeland Security Department and, 297

     Invention Secrecy Act, under, 298, 299, 330

     NSA and, 300–301

     secrecy orders, 298–301, 353

     USA PATRIOT Act, under, 297, 352

   weapons of mass destruction, information re, 302–306

Korematsu v. United States, 268

Koresh, David, 26

KPMG International, 348

Ku Klux Klan, 225, 282

“Lancet” experiment, 53

Latin America, impact of financial counterterrorism in, 181

Law Lords. See generally Judicial branches; specific Lord

Law Society of Northern Ireland, 140

Leahy, Patrick J., 101, 250, 252

Lee, Wen Ho, 14

Leggatt, Andrew, 205

Legislative branches

   breadth of counterterrorism in, 12

   check on executive power, as, 11

   civil liberties, impact of counterterrorism on, 16

   coercive interrogation, authority re

     United Kingdom, in, 112–113

     United States, in, 111–112

   criminal law, intrusion of counterterrorism into, 15–16

   culture of restraint

     importance of, 336–337

     inquiries, role of, 337–338

   formal inquiry into terrorism, lack of, 13–14

   importance of, 335

   incorporation of previously rejected provisions, 12–13

   indefinite detention, authority re

     United Kingdom, in, 112–113

     United States, in, 111–112

   nongermaneness of counterterrorism, 14

   omnibus nature of counterterrorism in, 12

   oversight function

     United Kingdom, in, 16–18

     United States, in, 18–20

   patriotism, appeals to, 13

   public sentiment and, 12–13

   recommendations re, 335–336

   re-empowering of, 336

   secretive nature of terrorism and, 12

   speed of enactment of counterterrorism in, 11–12, 13

   spiral nature of counterterrorism, 15

   sunset provisions (See Sunset provisions)

   surveillance oversight by

     United Kingdom, in, 263–264

     United States, in, 261–263

   temporary counterterrorism provisions

     sunset provisions, 14

     United Kingdom, in, 14–15

     United States, in, 15

Lehnert, Mike, 91–92

Lehrer, Jim, 9

Leigh, Mike, 67

Lester, Lord, 67, 328

Levi, Edward, 229

Levinson, Daryl, 19

Lexis-Nexis, 185

Libel Act 1792 (UK), 291

Libraries

   FBI, surveillance by, 228

   National Security Letters, use of, 237–238, 240, 243

Library Connection Inc., 240

Lieberman, Joseph, 352

Lincoln, Abraham, 276

Litterick, Tom, 36

Lloyd, Lord

   civil liberties, on, 32, 113, 359

   control orders, on, 63

   financial counterterrorism and, 138

   Guantánamo Bay, on, 108

   port and border controls, on, 213, 214

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 69

Loyalist Volunteer Force, 128

Lucas, Steve, 73

Maastricht Treaty, 6

MacDonald, Ian, 61, 64

Macdonald, Ken, 8

Madison, James, 19, 334

Magic Lantern, 250–251

Magna Carta, 35, 48

Major, John, 343

Malcolm X, 225

Mallalieu, Baroness, 69

Mallon, Geraldine, 145

Malone, James, 190–192

Mansfield, Guy, 67

Marchetti, Victor, 319–320

Marine Watch, 252

Mar-Jac Poultry, 175

Marrero, Victor, 239

Marshall-Andrews, Robert, 63

Masri, Khaled al-, 105, 111

Massari, Muhammed al-, 295

Matin, Abdul, 115

Maudling, Reginald, 42, 130

May, Lord, 309

Mayer, Jane, 104

Mazloom, Fazel, 74

McCain, John, 110

McCarthy, Eugene, 227

McClellan, Scott, 106, 119

McCowan, Anthony, 327

McDonnell, James, 56–57

McElduff, James, 38–39, 40

McKellen, Ian, 67

McNamara, Kevin, 49

Media and freedom of speech

   importance of, 275

   terrorist organizations, use by, 274, 275

Media ban and Northern Ireland, 293–294

Megarry, Robert, 191–192

Menezes, Jean Charles de, 28

Metropolitan Police, interception of communications by, 188, 189, 190

MI5. See Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 5

Microbiology, information re, 296–298, 309–310, 330–332, 351

Mikva, Abner, 227

Military commissions, 86–88

Military Commissions Act (US)

   executive branch authority under, 112

   habeas corpus under, 21–22, 88–89

   Hamdan v. Rumsfeld under, 88–89

   jurisdiction under, 88–89

Miller, Geoffrey

   Abu Ghraib, role at, 101

   Guantánamo Bay and

     coercive interrogation, on, 90

     indefinite detention, on, 73

Milligan, Ex parte, 87

Minority groups, effect of counterterrorism on

   money laundering and, 348–349

   overview, 26–27, 116

   surveillance and, 271

   United Kingdom, in

     Catholics, 116

     exculpation, difficulty of, 116–117

     Muslims, 116

     police, concerns of, 117

     port and border controls, 213

     radicalization of, 116

     stigmatization, 117

   United States, in

     chilling effect, 117–118

     Executive Order 13, 224, 167–168

     extraterritorial acts, 118

     international perception, 120

     Muslims, 117–118

     Qur’an desecration, 118–120

     radicalization of, 119

Miscarriage of justice and counterterrorism, 27–28

MKULTRA, 270

Mohammed, Faiz, 91

Money laundering and financial counterterrorism

   drug trafficking and, 136

   minority groups, targeting of, 348–349

   terrorism distinguished

     amounts of money involved, 346

     differences between, 345–346

     investigations, effect on, 346–347

     overview, 345, 349–350

     Suspicious Activity Reports, 347–349

   United Kingdom, Suspicious Activity Reports in, 347–348, 349

   United States, in

     accounts, power to close, 152

     Anti-Drug Abuse Act, under, 151, 152

     Bank Secrecy Act, under, 151

     Housing and Community Development Act, under, 151, 152

Money laundering (cont.)

     overview, 151

     pre-9/11 trends, 152–153

     Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978, under, 151–152

     seizure of assets, 152

     Suspicious Activity Reports, 151, 347–349

     USA PATRIOT Act, under, 161

Money Laundering and Financial Crimes Strategy Act of 1998 (US), 151

Money Laundering Regulations (UK), 145

Moore, William John, 41

Morison, Samuel, 322

Morland, Howard, 302

Mouyad, Ali Hassan al-, 109

Mr. Scruff, 67

Mueller, Robert, 14, 242

Muhammad, Elijah, 225

Musharraf, Pervez, 118–119

Mutairi, Nasser Nijer Naser al-, 119

MZM, 247

Nada, Youssef, 171, 179

Nasrddin, Ahmed Idris, 179

National Academy of Engineering, 332

National Academy of Sciences, 309, 331, 332

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 225, 227

National Audit Office, 263–264

National Council of Civil Liberties, 192–193

National Council of Resistance v. State, 150

National Counterterrorism Center, 262

National Crime Squad, 194, 214

National Criminal Intelligence Service, 194, 210, 214, 348, 349

National Geographic, 215

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, 184, 244, 248, 265

National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 343

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 331–332

National Laboratories, 259

National Park Service, 217

National Reconnaissance Office, 244, 265, 343

National Rifle Association, 270

National Science Foundation, 300

National Security Act of 1947 (US), 340

National Security Agency

   financial counterterrorism and, 147

   FOIA exception, 342–343

   interception of communications by, 222–223

   knowledge-based speech and, 300–301

   Operation SHAMROCK, 223

   overview, 244

   Project MINARET, 223–224

   surveillance by, 184

   surveillance oversight by, 265

   Terrorist Surveillance Program (TSP), 22, 244–245, 340–341

National Security Council

   al Qaeda, investigation of, 154

   financial counterterrorism and, 147, 178

National Security Letters

   criminal law and

     gag orders, criminal penalties for violating, 240–241

     intrusion into, 238, 243

   Doe v. Ashcroft, 239–240

   email, use on, 237–238

   expansion of targets, 241–242

   FBI, use by, 238, 241

   financial counterterrorism, use in, 164–165

   Inspector General, oversight by, 242–243, 339

   Internet service providers, use on, 237–238, 239–240

   judicial review, lack of, 238–239

   Justice Department, use by, 241

   libraries, use on, 237–238, 240, 243

   oversight of, 238–239, 242–243

   overview, 236–237

   preliminary inquiries, use in, 241

   retention of information obtained through, 238

   revisiting use of, 339

National Technical Assistance Center, 205

National Unemployed Workers’ Movement, 288

National Witness Protection Program, 146

Nation of Islam, 225

Necessity defense, 98

Negroponte, John, 258

Newcomb, Richard, 155

New York Stock Exchange, 333

New York Times, 321

Nicholls, Lord, 24, 60

9/11 Commission. See September 11 Commission

Nixon, Richard

   interception of communications by, 11

   Privacy Act and, 229

   surveillance by, 228

No Fly List, 254–255

Nolan, Lord, 201

Nondisclosure agreements, 318–320

Noonan, Robert W., 246–247

Noraid (Irish Northern Aid Committee), 128

Northern Alliance, 75

Northern Bank robbery, 124–126

Northern Command Intelligence Units, 244, 246

Northern Ireland

   bias in courts, 43

   “Bloody Sunday,” 38

   Casement Park trials, 215

   coercive interrogation in

     Adams case, 56–57

     advantages of, 51–52

     authorization, lack of, 51

     complaints re, 56–57

     criticism of, 52–54

     ECHR and, 51

     Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 50–51, 52, 53

     guidelines, lack of, 51

     historical background, 49–50

     ICCPR and, 52

     inquiries into, 50

     Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56

     military rules re, 50–51

     moral issues re, 51

     overview, 34, 48

     rejection of, 54

     restrictions proposed, 52

     Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, 51, 52

   criminals and terrorists, distinguishing, 345

   designation of unlawful organizations in

     Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43, under, 313

     generally, 313–314

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 314

     Regulation 14, 313

     Regulation 24, 313

     Regulation 24A, 313, 314

     Regulation 24B, 313

   Detention of Terrorists Order, 42

   Diplock Courts (See Diplock Courts)

   direct rule in, 42–43

   financial counterterrorism in

     change in emphasis re, 129–130

     cultural norms re, 129

     historical background, 129

     low priority of, 129

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 130–131

     Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 130, 131

     racketeering law, 134–135

   Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order (See Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order

   Geneva Conventions, applicability of

     coercive interrogation in, 50–51, 52, 53

     generally, 31, 34

   habeas corpus in

     appeal, lack of right to, 40

     arrest, validity of, 40–41

     damages, 41

     jurisdictional issues, 39–40

     In re Keenan and another, 38–39, 40

     Kelly v. Faulkner and others, 41

     In re McElduff, 38–39, 40

   historical background, 36

   indefinite detention in

     end of, 47–48

     historical background, 36–37

     Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56

     1971–72, during, 37–38

     overview, 34

     problems with, 43

     psychological effects of, 115

     violence resulting from, 38, 42–43

   juries, problems with, 43–44

   media ban and, 293–294

   military, legality of actions, 41–42

   Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996, 139–140

   Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish Republican Army)

   RIPA and, 198

   security versus freedom paradigm and, 5

   sedition and

     Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43, under, 291

     generally, 291–292

     Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 292–293

     Regulation 4, 291

     Regulation 8, 291

     Regulation 26, 291

     Regulation 26A, 292

   Supergrass trials, 173, 253

   torture in, 49

   treason and, 284

   unlawful assembly in

     Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43, under, 286–287

     expansion of restrictions, 287

     Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 287

     political nature of restrictions, 287

Northern Ireland (cont.)

     public support for restrictions, 287

     Regulation 4, 286

     Regulation 38, 287

   war model versus criminal law model in, 10

Northern Ireland Act 1972 (UK), 42

Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, 129

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973 (UK)

   criminal charges, 132

   designation of unlawful organizations under, 314

   Detention of Terrorists Order and, 42

   Diplock Courts and, 44

   ECHR and, 55

   financial counterterrorism under, 130–131

   forfeiture of assets under, 131–132

   reporting requirements, 14

   reports by judiciary under, 265

   temporary provisions, 15

   unlawful assembly under, 287

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1987 (UK), 134

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1991 (UK), 134, 136

Notebook I2, 257

NSA. See National Security Agency

Nuanced approach to counterterrorism, 334

Nuclear weapons, information re, 301–302, 330

The Observer, 324, 325

O’Connor, Sandra Day, 84

Octopus, 257

Office of Foreign Assets Control

   financial counterterrorism and, 147, 167, 175, 180

   property rights and, 174

   Suspicious Activity Reports and, 348

Office of Information and Privacy, 342

Office of Management and Budget, 335

Official Secrets Act 1911 (UK), 325, 326

Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK)

   closing of records under, 328

   D-Notice system and, 308

   ECHR and, 328

   R. v. Shayler and, 328–330

Oklahoma City bombing, 149, 234

Omagh bombing, 317

Omand, David, 107–108

Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (US), 221–222

Omnibus nature of counterterrorism, 12

O’Neill, Paul, 160, 167

Onslow, Earl of, 64

Operation Cornerstone, 159–160

Operation Demetrius, 312

Operation Eagle Eyes, 245, 253

Operation Green Quest, 159

Orange Volunteers, 128

Organized crime and financial counterterrorism

   Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order (See Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland) Order)

   generally, 139

   Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996, 139–140

Organized Crime Task Force, 139, 358

Orwell, George, 182–183

Osmotherly Rules, 323

Oversight

   Intelligence Services Act 1994, under, 197

   judicial branches, 25

   legislative branches, 16–20

   National Security Letters, 238–239, 242–243, 339

   RIPA, under, 197

   Security Services Acts 1989/1996, under, 197

   surveillance, of. See Surveillance oversight

Oxley, Michael, 165

Packard, Vance, 183

Paine, Thomas, 290

Paisley, Ian, 5, 44, 339

Paisley, Ian, Jr., 125

Palestinian Liberation Organization, 312

Palestinian Relief and Development Fund, 176

Palmer, A. Mitchell, 218, 279

Panel on Scientific Communication and National Security, 332

Paracha, Uzair, 165

Parker, Lord, 50–52

Parker Committee, 113

Parliament. See generally Legislative branches

Parliamentary Intelligence and Security Committee, 198

Parsons, John, 217

Patent and Trademark Office, 299, 353

Patents and inventions, information re, 298–301

Patent secrecy orders, 298–301, 353

Pathfinder, 257

Patriotism, appeals to, 13

Pearson, Ian, 144

Peck v. United Kingdom, 216–217

Pen registers, 231–232

“Pentagon Papers” case, 321–322

Pentiti trials, 253

People’s Mohjahedin Organization v. United States, 312

Perino, Dana, 165

Petition of Right 1628 (UK), 35

Pettiti, Louis-Edmund, 192

Philbin, Patrick F., 73

Picard, Michel, 109

Pildes, Richard, 19

Pluchinsky, Dennis, 273–274

POCA. See Proceeds of Crime Act 2002

Poindexter, John, 257–258

Police Act 1997 (UK), 194, 197, 201

Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (UK), 194, 202

Political speech

   United Kingdom, in

     ECHR and, 283, 296

     glorification of terrorism, 294–296

     media ban and Northern Ireland, 293–294

     overview, 283, 296

     restrictions on, 276

     sedition (See Sedition)

     treason (See Treason)

     unlawful assembly (See Unlawful assembly)

   United States, in

     advocacy versus conduct, 280, 282–283

     Alien and Sedition Acts of 1978, under, 276, 277

     anti-communism and, 280–281

     applicability of First Amendment to states, 280

     “bad tendency” test, 277–278

     Brandenburg case, 282–283

     Civil War, during, 276–277

     “clear and present danger” test, 278

     Committee on Public Information, 277

     Communist Control Act of 1954, under, 281

     cultural norms, 283

     Debs v. United States, 279

     Dennis v. United States, 281, 282

     Espionage Act of 1917, under, 277–279

     Frohwerk v. United States, 278–279

     Gitlow v. New York, 280

     judicial norms, 283

     loyalty programs, 281–282

     post-Word War I cases, 279

     protection of, 276

     Red Scare, during, 279–280

     Schenck v. United States, 278, 279, 282

     Sedition Act of 1918, under, 278

     Smith Act, under, 280, 281

     Subversive Activities Control Act, 280

     Sugarman v. United States, 279

     Whitney v. California, 280, 282

Ponting, Clive, 327

Port and border controls

   ATCSA, under, 214

   “carding,” 213

   code of practice, 214

   Customs and Excise, role of, 213, 214

   minorities, targeting of, 213

   overview, 213

   questioning under, 213–214

   Terrorism Act 2000, under, 213

Posner, Eric, 4, 25

Posner, Richard, 4, 24, 28

Post Office Act 1908 (UK), 187

Post Office Act 1953 (UK), 187

Post Office (Offenses) Act 1837 (UK), 187

Powell, Colin

   Geneva Conventions, on applicability of, 80, 81–82

   Guantánamo Bay, on indefinite detention at, 89

   historical background, 80

   torture, on, 100

Powell, Lewis F., Jr., 222

President. See generally Executive branches; specific President

President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 265

Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989 (UK)

   financial counterterrorism under, 133

   forfeiture of assets under, 133–134

Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 (UK)

   approval of, 71

   control orders

     concessions by government, 70–71

     criminal law, extension to, 16

     restrictions on, 70

   criminal law, intrusion into, 71

   future amendments, promise of, 68, 71

   government support of, 66, 69–70

   House of Commons, debate in, 66–67

   House of Lords, debate in, 68–69

   judiciary, role of, 67–68

   Parliament, final debate in, 70

   popular opposition to, 67

   press, reaction of, 67

   sunset provisions, lack of, 71

Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974 (UK)

   debate re, 13

   defense of, 5

   designation of unlawful organizations under, 314–315

   enactment of, 13

   financial counterterrorism under, 130, 131

   forfeiture of assets under, 131, 132

   reporting requirements, 14

   reports by judiciary under, 265

   sedition under, 292–293

   sunset provisions and, 338

Prime Minister. See generally Executive branches; specific Prime Minister

Prior restraint and national security information, 321–322

Prisoners of war

   Abu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)

   al Qaeda as, 81

   Geneva Conventions (See Geneva Conventions)

   Taliban as, 81

Privacy

   counterterrorism, effect of, 25–26

   data protection (See Data protection)

   Defense Department surveillance, impact of, 248

   financial counterterrorism, impact of, 169

   financial institutions and, 169–170

   overview, 206

   private sector and, 185–186

   surveillance and, 269–270

Privacy Act (US), 229

Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board, 19

Privileged speech

   United Kingdom, in

     breach of confidence, 324–325

     civil service rules, 323

     closing of records (See Closing of records)

     deference to executive branch, 330

     Osmotherly Rules, 323

     “Spycatcher” case, 323–325

     United States compared, 317, 322–323

   United States, in

     classified information, 320, 321

     nondisclosure agreements, 318–320

     outside scope of employment, 317–318

     “Pentagon Papers” case, 321–322

     prior restraint and national security information, 321–322

     within scope of employment, 318

     sensitive but not classified information, 320–321

     United Kingdom compared, 317, 322–323

Privy Counsellor Review Committee, 58–59

Probable cause

   FISA and, 230–231, 232, 233–234

   interception of communications, required for, 221–222

Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (UK)

   drug trafficking and, 137

   financial counterterrorism under

     Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145

     assumptions re proceeds, 143

     civil law, use of, 142–143

   judicial authority under, 143

Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order 1996 (UK), 139–140

The Progressive, 301–302, 330

Progressive Unionist Party, 274

Project BLUEBIRD/ARTICHOKE, 270

Project CHATTER, 270

Project Strikeback, 257

Property rights

   due process and, 174

   financial counterterrorism, impact of, 170, 174

Protection from Harassment Act (UK), 289

Provisional Irish Republican Army

   budget for, 346

   communication and, 274

   funding of

     amounts needed, 128

     diversification of, 127

     foreign sources of, 127–128

     Noraid, 128

     Northern Bank robbery and, 124–126

     overview, 123–124

     United States, from, 128

     unlawful sources of, 124, 126–127

   indefinite detention and, 38

   media ban and, 293

Psychological surveillance, 186, 270–271

Public Accounts Committee, 263–264

Publicity, role in counterterrorism, 358–359

Public Order Act 1936 (UK), 287–288

Public Order Act 1986 (UK), 288–289

Public sentiment and counterterrorism, 12–13

Qahtani, Mohamed al-, 74, 96–97

Qatada, Abu, 295

Quantum Leap, 257

Qur’an desecration, 118–120

Race Relations Act 1965 (UK), 289

Racial profiling. See Minority groups, effect of counterterrorism on

Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (US), 315–316

Racketeering law and financial counterterrorism, 134–135

Ramsey, Charles, 217

Rasul, Shafiq, 90

Rasul v. Bush, 83–84

Reagan, Ronald

   classified information under, 320

   rendition, on, 104

Real Irish Republican Army, 128, 138, 346

Red Hand Defenders, 128

Red Scare, 279–280

Reed, Stanley, 11

Rees, Merlyn, 47, 327

Refugee Convention of 1951, 106

Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (UK)

   admissibility of evidence under, 200–201

   authorization for surveillance, obtaining, 202

   benefits of, 199

   complaint procedures, 197

   covert human intelligence sources, 204

   criticism of, 206

   data protection under, 209–210

   directed surveillance, 203–204

   ECHR and, 195, 197, 198

   encrypted data under, 205

   inspections under, 199

   Intelligence Services Commissioner, 197, 198, 199

   Interception of Communications Commissioner, 197–198, 199

   interception of communications under

     inspections, 199

     oversight function, 197

     overview, 201, 202

   introduction of, 196

   intrusive surveillance, 202–203

   Investigatory Powers Tribunal, 197, 199

   R. v. Khan and, 201–202

   national security, secrecy re, 198–199

   Northern Ireland and, 198

   oversight function, 197, 204

   overview, 187

   powers, expansion of, 196–197

   protections, expansion of, 200

   reporting process, weaknesses of, 197–198

   restrictions on intercepts, 199–200

   terrorism, secrecy re, 198–199

   USA PATRIOT Act compared, 196

   warrants

     authorization of, 200

     content versus pattern of behavior, 205–206

Remedies and counterterrorism, 22–23

Rendition. See Extraordinary rendition

Reno, Janet, 250, 342

Reporting requirements

   citizen reporting programs (See Citizen reporting programs)

   cumulative nature of counterterrorism and, 341

   detail required, 341

   financial counterterrorism in United Kingdom, 142

   importance of, 340

   Interception of Communications Act 1985, under, 197

   Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973, under, 14

   persons to whom reports made, 340–341

   Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974, under, 14

   public disclosure, 340–341

   Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, under, 197–198

   Terrorism Act 2000, under, 142

   TSP, 340–341

Republican Sinn Féin, 293

Restoration of Order in Ireland Acts 1920 (UK), 15, 313

Rhuhel, Ahmed, 90

Rice, Condoleezza

   coercive interrogation, on, 106–107, 108

   Qur’an desecration, on, 119

Rideh, Mahmoud Abu, 115

Ridge, Tom, 256

Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978 (US), 151–152, 169, 241

RIPA. See Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000

Robertson, James, 88

Rodger, Lord, 61

Rome Treaty of 1957, 206

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 219

Ross, James, 91

Ross, William, 141

Roth, Kenneth, 109

Rowley, Colleen, 14

Royal Society, 309

Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), 37, 135, 286

Rule of law, erosion of, 356–357

Rumsfeld, Donald

   Abu Ghraib, on, 120

   coercive interrogation, revision of standards, 97–98, 99–100

   data mining and, 259

   Guantánamo Bay and

     coercive interrogation, on, 96

     indefinite detention, on, 72, 74, 75, 80, 82, 90

   Qur’an desecration, on, 119–120

Rusbridger, Alan, 284

Safe Harbor, 209

Safire, William, 270

Saint Louis University, 331

Sanchez, Ricardo, 101, 102

Saudi Arabia

   al Qaeda, sources of funding of, 154

   freezing of assets, unbalanced inclusion on lists, 357–358

Save the Children, 180

Scannell, Rick, 61

Scarfo; United States v., 251

Schenck v. United States, 278, 279, 282

Scheuer, Michael, 104

Schmidt Report, 96, 97

Schumer, Charles E., 252

Scotsman Publications Ltd.; Lord Advocate v., 308

Scott, Richard, 310

Searches

   delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236

   financial counterterrorism and, 174

   FISA, warrantless searches under, 231

   “sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236

   USA PATRIOT Act, warrantless searches under, 233–234

Secrecy orders, 298–301, 353

Secret evidence. See Financial counterterrorism

Secret Intelligence Service, 210

Secretive nature of terrorism and counterterrorism, 12

Secret Service, 160

Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype Environment, 257

Secure Flight, 256

Security Service, 210

Security Service Acts 1989/1996 (UK)

   complaint procedures, 197, 199

   ECHR and, 192, 194, 195

   MI5 under, 194

   oversight function, 197

   overview, 187, 195

   warrants, obtaining, 194–195

Sediq, Mohammed, 92

Sedition

   Northern Ireland and (See Northern Ireland)

   United Kingdom, in

     Blackstone on, 290

     common law, under, 290

     defined, 290

     films, banning of, 291–292

     political speech, 290–291

     seditious conspiracy, 291

     United States compared, 291

   United States, in (See Political speech)

Sedition Act of 1918 (US), 278

Select Committee on Northern Ireland Affairs, 358

Sensenbrenner, James, 1, 13, 241, 242, 270, 338

Sensitive but not classified information, 320–321

Separation of powers

   executive powers and, 11

   Guantánamo Bay, and indefinite detention at, 72

   Islamist threat in United Kingdom, and indefinite detention, 60

   surveillance oversight, effect on, 265

September 11 Commission

   financial counterterrorism, on, 174, 178

   freezing of assets, on, 176

   funding of terrorist organizations, on, 153

   Muslim charities, on targeting of, 180

   surveillance oversight, reform efforts, 262

Serious Organized Crime Agency, 146

SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach to Reducing Exploitation), 159–160

Sharkey, Brian, 258

Shayler, David Michael, 328–330

Shay’s Rebellion, 26

Shibh, Ramzi bin al-, 75

Shift in power among branches of government, 6–7

Shillington, Graham, 37

Short-term approach to counterterrorism, dangers of, 359–360

Simon, Bob, 175

Simon, Lord, 17

Sinn Féin

   designation of unlawful organizations and, 314

   elections and, 126

   forfeiture of assets and, 131

   funding of, 126

   media ban and, 293, 294

Siri, Yasser al-, 295

Sixth Amendment, 172

Smith, Howard W., 280

Smith, Stuart, 198

Smith, Thomas, 49

Smith Act, 280, 281

“Sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236

Snepp, Frank, 319

Snow, John, 165

Socialist Workers Party (US), 225–227

Society for General Microbiology, 309–310

Sofaer, Abraham, 94, 110

Souter, David, 84

Southern Christian Leadership Council, 225, 227

Special courts, 25

Special Immigration Appeals Commission, 58

Specially Designated Terrorist List, 123, 148, 166, 177

Special Powers Act. See Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43

Specter, Arlen, 21, 164, 262

Speech, freedom of

   AEDPA, under, 150–151

   censorship and terrorism, 273–274

   charitable contributions and, 168–169

   communication by terrorist groups, 274

   costs of restrictions on, 332

   designation of unlawful organizations, effect of

     domestic organizations, 312

     foreign organizations, 312–313

     Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)

     United Kingdom, in, 313, 314–315

   evidence rules, effect of

     United Kingdom, in, 316–317

     United States, in, 315–316

   executive branch and

     deference to, 330

     expansion of authority, 275–276

   executive detention, effect of

     United Kingdom, in, 312

     United States, in, 311–312

   financial counterterrorism and, 150–151

   knowledge-based speech (See Knowledge-based speech)

   media and

     importance of, 275

     terrorist organizations, use by, 274, 275

   political speech (See Political speech)

   privileged speech (See Privileged speech)

   restrictions on, unintended results of, 30

   secondary effects of counterterrorism on, 311, 317

   security and, 29–30

   sedition (See Sedition)

   states, applicability of First Amendment to, 280

   Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244

   United Kingdom versus United States, 275

   watch lists and, 256

Speed of enactment of counterterrorism, 11–12, 13

Spiral nature of counterterrorism, 15

“Spycatcher” case, 308, 323–325, 328

Standing Advisory Committee on Human Rights, 129

Standing and counterterrorism, 22

Star Chamber, 49

Stevens, Cat, 255

Stevens, John, 66

Stevens, John Paul, 22, 83–84, 86–88, 267

Stevenson, Adlai, III, 227

Stewart, Potter, 221

Steyn, Lord, 89

Stone, Geoffrey, 282, 283

Stone, Harlan Fiske, 218, 224, 229

Straw, Jack, 89, 138, 344

Student Exchange Visitor Information System, 297

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, 225

Students for a Democratic Society, 225

Subpoenas

   National Security Letters (See National Security Letters)

   USA PATRIOT Act, requirement eliminated under, 169

Subversive Activities Control Act (US), 280

Subversive Activities Control Board, 280

Successes of counterterrorism, 333

Sugarman v. United States, 279

Sunday Times, 324

Sunset provisions

   problems with, 338, 339

   recommendation against, 339–340

   renewal debates, nature of, 338–339

   secrecy, impact of, 339

   temporary counterterrorism provisions, as, 14

Supergrass trials, 173, 253

Supreme Court. See generally Judicial branches; specific Justice

Surveillance

   citizen reporting programs (See Citizen reporting programs)

   closed-circuit television (See Closed-circuit television, surveillance by)

   computers, effect of, 185, 186

   costs of

     acontextual data merger, danger of, 267

     deviant behavior, use of information to suppress, 268–269

     dissent, use of information to suppress, 268

     economic activity, impact on, 271–272

     excessive amount of information, danger of, 267–268

     expansion beyond terrorism, danger of, 269

     Fourth Amendment, avoiding, 269

     individualized suspicion, abandonment of, 269

     law enforcement, impact on, 270

     minority groups, targeting of, 271

     overview, 266, 272

     political purposes, use of information for, 268

     privacy, impact on, 269–270

     stigmatization, danger of, 271

   covert human intelligence sources, 204

   data mining (See Data mining)

   data protection (See Data protection)

   directed surveillance, 203–204, 216

   electronic surveillance (See Interception of communications)

   financial counterterrorism, use in, 164–165

   Fourth Amendment and

     avoidance of, 269

     executive authority and, 220

   hidden nature of benefits versus visible nature of costs, 186

   inaccurate information

     criminal prosecutions, use in, 267

     danger of, 266–267

     extent of, 267

     third-party collection of information, problems with, 267

   interception of communications (See Interception of communications)

   Internet, effect of, 185

   intrusive surveillance, 202–203

   oversight of (See Surveillance oversight)

   psychological surveillance, 186, 270–271

   telephones, effect of, 185

   United Kingdom, in

     closed culture of, 183, 184

     ECHR, impact of, 183–184

     executive branch oversight, 265–266

     FISA compared, 232

     historical background, 183

     inter-branch disputes, 183

     judicial review, 264–265

     legislative oversight, 263–264

     port and border controls (See Port and border controls)

     public surveillance, 212

     RIPA, under (See Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000)

     statutory authority, 187

   United States, in

     closed-circuit television, 217–218

     Defense Department (See Defense Department)

     Defense Intelligence Agency, 184, 244, 245, 248

     executive branch oversight, 265

     FBI (See Federal Bureau of Investigation)

     FISA, under (See Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978)

     historical background, 184

     judicial review, 264, 265

     legislative oversight, 261–263

     overview, 243

     private sector and, 185–186

     USA PATRIOT Act, under (See USA PATRIOT Act)

   watch lists (See Watch lists)

   wiretapping (See Interception of communications)

Surveillance oversight

   United Kingdom, in

     ECHR and, 264–265

     executive branch oversight, 265–266

     FISA compared, 265

     judicial review of, 264–265

     legislative oversight, weakness of, 263–264

     Public Accounts Committee, 263–264

     reports by judiciary, 265

     weaknesses of, 263

   United States, in

     Congressional inaction and, 262

     deference to executive branch and, 262

     executive branch oversight, 265

     FISA Court, 263–264

     funding of, 263

     Intelligence Oversight Board, 265

     judicial review of, 264, 265

     lack of emphasis on oversight post-9/11, 261

     legislative oversight, 261–263

     political considerations, 261–262

     President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 265

     reform efforts, 262–263

     separation of powers, effect of, 265

     strengths of, 261

     weaknesses of, 261

Suspicious Activity Reports, 151, 161, 347–349

Swift banking incident, 164–165, 179

Taguba, Antonio, 101, 102

Taguba Report, 103, 321

Taliban

   enemy combatants, as, 78

   Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 78, 80, 81, 82

   prisoners of war, as, 81

TALON program, 245–246

Taylor, Anna Diggs, 244

Taylor, Jan, 215

Technology and Privacy Advisory Committee, 258–259

Telephones

   surveillance, effect on, 185

   Terrorist Surveillance Program, 244–245

   wiretapping (See Interception of communications)

Teller, Edward, 301

Temporary counterterrorism provisions

   sunset provisions, 14

   United Kingdom, in, 14–15

   United States, in, 15

Temporary Provisions Act 1974. See Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974

Tenet, George, 104, 105

Terrorism Act 2000 (UK)

   financial counterterrorism under, 138–139, 170–171

   open warrants under, 142

   port and border controls under, 213

   reporting requirements, 142

   reports by judiciary under, 265

   witness protection programs and, 354

Terrorism Information and Prevention System (TIPS), 251–252

Terrorism Information Awareness, 258

Terrorist Financing Operations Section, 158

Terrorist Financing Unit, 158

Terrorist Surveillance Program (TSP), 22, 244–245, 340–341

Thatcher, Margaret

   Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 69

   “Spycatcher” case and, 324

   war model versus criminal law model, on, 10

   Zircon affair and, 327

Thomas, Lord, 69, 70

Thompson, George, 307

Thompson, Larry, 159, 174

Threat and Local Observation Notice (TALON) program, 245–246

TIPS (Terrorism Information and Prevention System), 251–252

Tisdall, Sarah, 326–327

Torture

   Abu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)

   admissibility of evidence obtained through

     Convention Against Torture and, 113

     ECHR and, 113

     Guantánamo Bay, 92–93

   Detainee Treatment Act, amendments to prohibit

     adoption of, 110–111

     opposition to, 110–111

     support for, 110

   Guantánamo Bay, at (See Guantánamo Bay)

   Northern Ireland, in, 49

   United Kingdom, in

     common law, under, 48

     historical rejection of, 48–49

     Islamist threat in United Kingdom and (See Islamist threat in United Kingdom)

     Magna Carta and, 48

     national security and, 49

     Star Chamber, 49

Torture Victims Protection Act (US), 111

Total Information Awareness, 22, 184, 268

Tourism, effect of counterterrorism on, 28–29

Tower, John, 228

Trading with the Enemy Act (US), 147–149

Traditional pattern of counterterrorism, 2

Trager, David, 111

Transparency and accountability in counterterrorism

   importance of, 341

   overview, 341

   United Kingdom, in, 343–345

   United States, in

     classified information and, 343

     Freedom of Information Act, under (See Freedom of Information Act)

Transportation Department, 184

Transportation Security Administration

   citizen reporting programs, 252

   No Fly List and, 254, 255

   Secure Flight and, 256

Trap and trace devices, 231–232

Treason

   common law, under, 283

   defined, 283

   expansion of treasonable offenses, 283–284

   Northern Ireland and, 284

   republican government, advocacy of, 284–285

Treason Act 1351 (UK), 283

Treason Act 1795 (UK), 284

Treason Felony Act (UK), 284

Treasury Department

   Executive Office for Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes, 159

   Financial Action Task Force, 159

   financial counterterrorism, role in, 159

   Office of Foreign Assets Control, 348

   surveillance by, 184, 228, 243

Truman, Harry S.

   interception of communications by, 11

   knowledge-based speech and, 299

   loyalty programs under, 281

   steel mills, seizure of, 359

Truong; United States v., 234

Trustco Bank, N.A., 349

Twenty-First Century Department of Justice Appropriation Authorization Act, 250

Twining, William, 44

Tyrie, Andrew, 107

Udeen, Jamal, 90

Ulster Defence Association, 128, 274, 293, 346

Ulster Democratic Party, 274

Ulster Freedom Fighters, 128

Ulster Volunteer Force, 128, 274, 314

“Unabomber,” 274

Un-American Activities Committee, 281

Uncertainty in counterterrorism, 334

UN Committee Against Torture, 58

UN Convention on the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism, 349

Uniform Code of Military Justice, 20, 98

United Kingdom. See specific topic

United Nations Charter, 62

United States. See specific topic

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

   Islamist threat in United Kingdom, torture and, 62

   Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogation in, 51, 52

Unlawful assembly

   disorderly behavior and, 289

   domestic restrictions, 287

   ECHR and, 289–290

   hate speech and, 289

   historical background, 287–288

   Human Rights Act 2000, under, 289

   insults and, 289

   necessity doctrine, 285–286

   Northern Ireland and (See Northern Ireland)

   Public Order Act 1936, under, 287–288

   Public Order Act 1986, under, 288–289

   Regulation 9A, 287

   Regulation 20, 288

   United States compared, 285

Unlawful combatants. See Enemy combatants

UN Relief and Works Agency, 180

USA Freedom Corps, 254

USA PATRIOT Act

   amendments to, 2

   Congressional debate, 1–2

   criminal law, intrusion into, 16, 233–234

   data protection under, ATCSA compared, 210–211

   delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236

   enactment of, 2

   expansion of executive powers under, 10

   financial counterterrorism under

     currency transaction reports, 161–162

     customer identification measures, 161

     executive authority under IEEPA, broadening of, 160–161

     extraterritorial jurisdiction, 163–164

     financial institutions, regulation of, 161–163, 169–170

     forfeiture of assets, 163, 170

     freezing of assets, 163

     money laundering programs, 161

     National Security Letters, use of, 164–165

     offshore banking and, 162–163

     overview, 123, 147, 160

     searches of records, 162–163

     surveillance, use of, 164–165

     Suspicious Activity Reports, 161, 347

     Swift banking incident, 164–165

   habeas corpus, suspension of, 1

   incorporation of previously rejected provisions, 13

   interception of communications under, RIPA compared, 196

   introduction, 1

   knowledge-based speech and, 297, 352

   nonuse of provisions, 334

   permanent provisions of, 2

   privacy concerns and, 26

   resolutions against, 269

   “sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236

   speed of enactment, 11

   student visas under, 297

   subpoena requirement, elimination of, 169

   sunset provisions in, 2, 339

   surveillance under

     business records, obtaining, 233, 234–235

     criminal law, intrusion into, 233–234

     emergency powers, 235

     financial counterterrorism, use in, 164–165

     FISA Court objections, 233

     National Security Letters (See National Security Letters)

     overview, 233

     “significant purpose” standard, 233

     Truong case and, 234

     warrantless searches, 233–234

USA PATRIOT Improvement Act, 2

US Social Science Research Council, 118

Uzair, Abu, 295

Varhola, Michael, 247

Verity K2 Enterprise, 257

Vermeule, Adrian, 4, 25

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 79, 137

Viking Penguin, 324

Vinson, Fred, 11, 281

Voluntary Tender Act of 1917 (US), 298

Voluntary Vetting Scheme, 298, 308–309

Wadi al-Aqiq, 156

Walker, Clive, 212, 213

Walker, Mary L., 98

Walker, Vaughn, 245

War Crimes Act (US), 76, 79, 80, 81

War model versus criminal law model of counterterrorism

   generally, 7–10

   Northern Ireland, in, 10

   problems with approaches, 9, 10

   range of executive powers sought, differences in, 9

   source of authority of executive power, differences in, 9

   United Kingdom, in, 7–9

   United States, in, 8, 10, 356–357

War Powers Resolution (US), 71

Warrants

   delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236

   FISA, warrantless searches under, 231

   interception of communications, warrant requests, 188–190

   open warrants and financial counterterrorism, 142

   RIPA, under

     authorization of, 200

     content versus pattern of behavior, 205–206

   Security Service Acts 1989/1996, under, 194–195

   “sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236

   surveillance warrants, 265–266, 335

   Terrorism Act 2000, open warrants under, 142

   USA PATRIOT Act, warrantless searches under, 234

Warren, Charles, 277

Washington Post, 321

Watch lists

   CAPS program, 255

   expansion of, 256

   freedom of speech and, 256

   historical background, 254

   Homeland Security Department, 256

   No Fly List, 254–255

   private companies developing, 255–256

   problems with, 256

   Secure Flight, 256

Waxman, Henry A., 262

Weapons of mass destruction, information re, 302–306

Weaver, Randy, 26

Wechsler, William, 154, 155

Western Goals Foundation, 253

Westin, Alan, 183, 271

White, Byron, 221

White, Stephen, 355

Whitelaw, William, 5, 10, 42, 43, 44

White Oak Technologies, 247

Whitman, Bryan, 119

Whitney v. California, 280, 282

Wilberforce, Lord, 17

Wildhaber, Luzius, 212

Williams, Lord, 284

Wilson, Harold, 323

Wilson, Woodrow, 277

Winfield, Gwyn, 65

Wiretapping. See Interception of communications

Witness protection programs

   National Witness Protection Program, 146

   strengthening of, recommendation re, 354–355

WMD Commission, 262

Wolfowitz, Paul, 84, 245, 247

World Bank, 157, 333

World Health Organization, 297

Wright, Peter, 193–194, 323–324, 325

Wyden, Ron, 258, 262

Yee, James, 255

Yoo, John

   customary international law, on, 79

   data mining, on, 260

   Geneva Conventions, on, 76–78

   Guantánamo Bay, and indefinite detention at, 71, 73

   Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244

Zada, Shah, 115

Zawahiri, Ayman Muhammad, 104

Zayed, Muhammad Moshen Yahya, 109

Zery, Muhammad, 106

Zircon affair, 327–328

Zubaydah, Abu, 7