The Market for Force

Index

Abacha, Sani 185

ABC News 2, 239

Abu Ghraib 2, 22, 225, 235

accountability 23, 53, 76, 208, 225, 249

adventurous foreign policy 60, 259

Aegis Defense Services 227–31

Afghanistan 121, 160, 170, 224, 232

Africa 4

African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI) 121, 123, 130

agenda setting 68

Aims Limited 18, 169

AirScan 19, 131

   in Colombia 151

Al Qaeda 224

Alien Tort Statute 236

Alpha 5 159

Alutiiq-Waskenhut 147

American Revolutionary War 22

Amoco 16

Angola 150, 160

apartheid, end of 157

Aquinas, Thomas 246

ArmorGroup International (also known as DSL) 9–16, 18, 20, 67, 131, 169, 170, 173, 174, 187, 221

arms trade 65–66, 143–44

Ashanti Gold 131

Ashdown, Paddy 105

ATCO Frontec Corp. 20

Barlow, Eban 91

Bechtel 20, 239

Beni Tal 18, 21

Bio, Maada 87, 89, 90

Black Bear Consulting 18

Blackwater 2, 9, 21, 22, 228, 232, 240

Blair, Tony 173

Booz Allen Hamiton 9, 18, 114

Bosnia 101, 124, 148, 152, 234

   Train and Equip program 151

Branch Energy 86

Branch Group 159

Bremer, L. Paul 21, 235

Britain 39, 67, 77, 145, 256

   arms to Africa affair 172

   British International Military Assistance Training Team in Sierra Leone 98

   Defense Export Services Organization 170, 171

   Foreign Enlistment Act of 1870 172

   government interests in Sierra Leone 86

   Green Paper on the Regulation of Mercenary Activity 168, 172–73, 175, 177

   Private Finance Initiative (PFI) 168–69

   privatization movement in 35

   regulation of security service exports 170–73

British Army 174, 239

British Petroleum (BP) 16, 131, 187

British Special Air Services (SAS) 9, 169, 170

Brooks, Doug 5

Brown, Andy 87

budgetary control 59

Burke, James 118

Bush, George W. 37, 136, 224

Business of Peace 187

CACI 2, 235

California Microwave Systems 233

CARE 16, 170, 202–03

Carlisle Group 148

Catholic Relief Services 239

Cehulic, Lidiji 111

Cerny, Philip 32, 262, 263

Cervenko, Varimar 103

Chad–Cameroon Pipeline Deal 241–43

chartered companies 28, 30

Chechnya 8

Chevron 16, 184, 241

CIAO, Inc. 233

citizen armies 29, 66

Civil Defense Force (CDF) 92, 95

Civil–military relations 38, 40, 78, 134, 152

   civilian control of the military 51

Clausewitz, Carl von 3, 155

Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) 2, 21, 131, 157, 226, 235

Cohen, Eliot 5, 31, 34

Cold War 29, 32, 42, 114–96

   and demand for South Africa PSCs 159

   end of 30, 35–38, 67, 98, 115, 157

collective goods see public goods

Colombia 151, 152, 170, 233

common agency 40

COMTek 118–20

constructivist 50, 53, 56

contracting

   criticisms of 85–98

   for security 81

control of force 3, 5–6, 39, 40–45, 71

   different conceptions of 44–45

   dimensions of control 6, 38, 56, 72, 78, 81, 204

   functional control 5, 41, 43, 49, 50, 54, 58, 64, 65, 66, 68, 71, 75, 81, 86, 90, 94, 110, 114–96, 123–27, 132, 143–44, 145, 166–67, 178, 179–80, 181–82, 193, 207, 212–13, 216, 254

   political control 5, 41–42, 43, 49, 59–60, 68, 71, 73, 82, 90–91, 110, 113, 114–15, 119, 128–30, 132–33, 145, 153, 167, 179, 192, 198, 199, 203, 206, 212–13, 218, 226 (see also redistribution of power) 253, 255

   social control 6, 42, 43, 50, 54, 61, 68, 73–75, 81–82, 91–92, 110–13, 114–15, 120–31, 133, 179, 180, 193, 197, 199, 200, 207, 212–13, 226, 254

   fit between functional, political, and social see reinforcing process of control

   trade-offs 39, 56, 70, 77, 145, 175–77, 253, 254

     in South Africa 164–67

     in the US 152–57

     in Britain 173

     among TNCs 190

     among relief INGOs 200–03

     among conservation INGOs 212–15

Control Risk Group 16, 21, 131, 170, 173

Cooley, Alexander 201

Cooper, Frederic 229

corporate social responsibility 51, 191, 203, 220

Council on Economic Priorities 187

counterinsurgency training 88

Croatia 39, 77, 139, 151, 152, 240, 255

   and contracting for security services 98–113

   Democratic Transition Assistance Program 102

   Army Readiness Training Program (CARTS) 103

   Operations “Lightning” and “Storm” 103–06, 130, 156

   MPRI's work in as a US foreign policy tool 152–54

Croatian Army (HV) 100–13, 154

Croatian Democratic Community (HDZ) 99

Crown Agents 20, 170

Cubic 9, 18, 134, 148

Cunningham, Kevin 115

Dayton Peace Accords 129, 148, 153

De Beers 16

Defense Systems Limited (DSL) see Armor-Group

delegation 43, 47, 79

democracy/democratic processes 4, 23, 51, 61, 69, 121, 155, 191

Democratic Peace 260–61

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 5, 8, 17, 77, 192–203, 204–15, 256

Denard, Bob 22

DiamondWorks, Ltd. 159

Diet at Worms 246, 247

diffusion of control 39, 228–44, 248

DiMaggio, Paul 223

dimensions of control see control of force

Donahue, John 24, 48

Duffield, Mark 229, 251

DynCorp 9, 18, 20, 121, 122, 131, 134, 234

   and international civilian police 127, 132

   in Colombia 19

   and bid for oil security in Iraq 131

Eagle Aviation Services and Technology (EAST) 19

Eagle Group International 122

ECOMOG 93, 94, 171

   participation of Nigerian troops in 186

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 93

economic institutionalism 45–49, 57, 71, 79

education 55, 56, 59, 61, 64, 71, 74, 134, 178

   professional military education 52

     in US 156

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 136

Equatorial Guinea 148, 150, 152, 154

Eric, SA 17

Erinys 16, 19, 21, 122, 131, 226, 228

European Union (EU) 34

Evans, Rusty 165

Executive Outcomes (EO) 17, 158, 159, 200, 225–26

   contracts with foreign governments 17–18

   and cooperation with South African government 164–65

   after demise of 160

   in Sierra Leone 86–92, 97, 98, 232, 255

   and South Africa's Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act 161–62, 163

extractive industries (oil, diamonds, etc.) 181

ExxonMobile 236, 241–42

Falconer 20, 159

Fallows, James 136

Fallujah 22, 239–40

FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) 233

Fayemi, J. Kayode 4, 6

Fennell, James 4

Fenning, Richard 131

feudal lords 25, 27, 246

Finer, Samuel E. 68

fit see reinforcing process

foreign military sales (FMS) 129

foreign policy by proxy 4, 65, 68, 152, 155

   absence in South Africa 167

Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) 205

Frasure, Bob 153

Frederick, Nicholas, and Duncan (FND) 19, 160

Freeman, Jody 53, 55

Friedman, Milton 191

Fynwest 18

Game Rangers' Association 210

Gantz, Peter 238

Garamba National Park 39, 77, 204–15, 237

Gardiner, Colonel Sam 259

Geneva Convention 232

Geolink 17

Global Development Four (GD4) 20

Global Impact 18

Global Options 18

Global Risk Holdings 20

globalization 31, 32–34, 144, 229, 257–58

GOAL 16

Goma Camps 39, 77, 192–203

governance 36, 63, 73, 79, 204, 230

   role by commercial actors 190, 191–92

   networked 241–43

Gowa, Joanne 135

Grant, Bruce 155

Gray Security 20, 160

Grunberg, Michael 86

Guenee, Bernard 245

Gulf War 6, 19, 29

guns for hire see mercenaries

Gurkha Security Guards 18

   in Sierra Leone 84–86, 96, 98, 225–26

Haliburton see Kellogg, Brown, and Root

Hart Group 233

Hauser, Robert 195

Held, David 228–29

Henderson, David 191–92

Herbst, Jeffrey 221

Heritage Oil and Gas 159

Hobbes, Thomas 46

Hoffman, Jerry 131

Holbrook, Richard 153

Holy Roman Empire 230, 250

human rights see international norms/values, human rights

Human Rights Watch 189

Hungary 148

Huntington, Samuel 41

Hussein, Saddam 259

Ibis Air 18, 19

ICI Oregon 19, 20, 147, 149, 156

imperial force 244

information asymmetry 58, 59

Institut Zaïrois pour le Conservation de la Nature (IZCN became IUCN) 205, 206

institutional mechanisms see mechanisms of control

institutional theory 38, 58, 72–76

   model 40, 78, 79, 81, 145, 179–80, 229–30

   and the US 132

   see also new institutionalism

institutionalization 55

interest motivated 72

International Alert 187

International Business Leaders' Forum 197

international civilian police 20, 127

International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries 230

International Defense and Security (IDAS) 18

International Law Concerning the Conduct of Hostilities 232

international law 52, 53, 69, 188, 230

   and private security 230–36

   and South Africa's Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act 164–67

   see also laws of war

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 34, 35, 119

international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) 30, 38, 50, 69, 71–72, 73–74, 76, 148, 159, 170

   as value motivated actors 71–72

   literature on 179

   in Iraq 2

   and financing security 256

     humanitarian INGOs 192–203

     conservation INGOs 204–15

   and Chad-Cameroon Pipeline 241

international norms/values 5, 43–44, 53, 54, 60–61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 74–75, 76, 81, 130, 178, 181, 200, 219

   and British PSCs 174–75

   and American PSCs 157

   conservation 207, 215

   and extractive companies 191

   human rights 61–76, 161, 181, 221, 224

   and EO 164

   and EO in Sierra Leone 96, 113

   and MPRI in Croatia 110–13

   rule of law 51, 61

   and Sandline in Sierra Leone

   and South African PSCs 166

   see also international law; laws of war

international organizations (IOs) 50, 69, 148, 159, 257

International Peace Operations Association (IPOA) 222

International Port Services Training Group 18

International Rhino Foundation 206–15

Iran/Contra Scandal 115

Iraq 8, 29, 67, 121, 147, 157, 160, 170, 226, 233, 256, 260

   participation of South African PSCs in 166, 237

Iraqi Army 1, 18, 130, 131

Iraqi Police 131

Italian City States 27, 230, 250

IUCN see Institut Zaïrois pour le Conservation de la Nature

Jacobite Rebellion 28

Janowitz, Morris 42, 51–52

Jones, Bruce 196

Jupiter Mining Company 93

just war 246

Kabbah, Ahmed Tejan 95–98, 171, 173, 175

Kabila, Laurent 208

Kagame, Paul 195

Kaldor, Mary 251

Kamajors (Kamajoisia) 88–98, 171

Kaplan, Robert 34

Karzai, Hamid 20, 123

KAS Enterprises 18

Keegan, John 3

Kellogg, Brown, and Root (KBR) 20, 22, 147, 148, 149, 156, 262

Kemp, Elizabeth 209

KMS 169

Koroma, Johnny Paul 92–93, 96

Kosovo 201, 222

laws of war 51, 236

Levden 18

Levi, Margaret 1, 46

Liberalism 54 136

   liberal values 52

   see also international values

Liberia 152

Lifeguard Security 20, 88, 93, 159, 160, 166

Liutingh, Lafras 87

logic of appropriateness 50, 54

logic of consequences 54

Logicon 18

Lonhro 85

Machiavelli, Niccolò 249

Mandela, Nelson 158, 164, 165

Mansfield, Count Von 249

March, James 254

market for force 25–30, 30–38, 39, 65–70, 219, 253

   implications of 3–7, 53

   from the US 146–49

   transnational 7–22, 166, 175–77

McNeill, William 247, 250

mechanisms of control 6, 38, 56–57, 72, 79, 180, 230, 262

   market 39, 67, 219–28

   consumer 67, 144–45

   consequential 6, 54, 70, 71, 143, 154, 178, 179

   see also budgetary control, monitoring, screening and selection

   social 6, 55, 68–69, 71, 75, 178, 179

   see also education, military professionalism: military professional norms and standards

mercenaries 8, 22–23, 29, 69, 172, 222, 227, 231, 247, 249

   guns for hire/soldiers of fortune 4, 121, 213, 222

   mercenary reputation 85

   and Sandline 94

   see also private armies

Mesic, Stipe 108

Migdal, Joel 57, 82

military contractors 27, 28–30, 245–47

military effectiveness 59, 61, 62, 136, 139–40, 224–25

   in Sierra Leone 114–96

   in Croatia 110

   in the US 138

   see also control of force, functional control; reinforcing process of control

Military Extraterritorial Jurisdiction Act (MEJA) 234, 235

Military Professional Resources International (MPRI, now part of L-3 Communications) 9, 18, 19, 20, 35, 122, 124, 129, 131, 134, 148, 152–55, 221, 245

   in Angola 150

   in Croatia 101–13, 128, 156, 255

     Croatian Army Readiness Training Program 106

   in Equatorial Guinea 150

   in Nigeria 188

   ROTC training in US 117–20, 121, 130

   with KLA 222

military professionalism 42, 51–52, 61, 76, 130

   and DSL 9

   emerging international standard for 52, 222–24, 251

   and EO training 91, 113

   in Garamba 207–08

   military professional networks 61, 62, 63, 64

   military professional norms and standards 81–82, 118–19, 157, 200, 204, 219, 221, 223, 253

   military professionals 52, 60, 63, 249

   of MPRI in Nigeria 188

   PSCs and 5, 61

   PSCs in Britain 174

   of Sandline in Sierra Leone 95

   of MPRI in Croatia 112–13

militias 224

Milošević, Slobodan 153

Minnow, Martha 18, 23, 53

Mobile 16

Mobutu, President 17, 194, 196

Momoh, Joseph 83

monitoring 56, 57, 58, 66, 133, 222

   difficulties for parliament in Croatia 106

   in US 155

monopoly over force 25, 46, 66, 69

   collectively held among states 145, 228, 253, 264

   that emanates from state territory 143, 144

Montgomery, William 107

Mozambique 85, 170, 171

multi-lateral institutions 34, 37–38, 229, 238, 240

Multiple principles 75–76

   in Garamba 204

   in Sierra Leone 97–98

Musah, Abdel-Farau 4, 6

neomedievalism 262

new institutionalism 6, 45, 57, 254

   see also institutional theory, model; economic institutionalism, sociological institutionalism

Nigeria 39, 77, 255

   oil in 182–92, 237

non-state actors 3, 31, 36–37, 70, 76, 78, 178

   debate among 78, 190, 200–203, 212–15, 253

   identity of 76, 190–91, 203, 218, 237

   see also international non-government organizations, transnational corporations

non-state financing for security

   see privatization of security, financing

Norman, Sam Hinga 96

norms see social norms and practices

North, Douglas 46

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 34, 37, 109, 129, 130, 139, 148

   Partnership for Peace Program (PfP) in Croatia 102, 106, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 131, 139

Northbridge 169, 173

O'Brien, Kevin 163, 166

O'Gara Protective Services 18

Obasanjo, Olusegun 188–95

Olsen, Johan 254

Olson, Mancur 46

OMB Circular A-76 35, 115

Omega Support Limited 160

Omega Training Group 122

Operation Iraqi Freedom 18, 132, 152, 238

Organi 8 186

Organization for African Unity (OAU) 161–63

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 34

Ottoway, Marina 191

oversight see monitoring

Pacific Architects and Engineers (PA&E) 19, 20

Papua New Guinea 170, 174

paramilitary forces 70, 71, 224

Parsons, Talcott 2, 239

patrimonial authority 58

Patriot Act 234, 235

peace dividend 35

Peace of Westphalia 25, 27

Penfold, Peter 173

Petronas 241

Picula, Tony 109

Pinkertons 22

political market failures 135

Powell, Walter 223

Prince of Wales Business Leaders' Forum see International Business Leaders' Forum

private armies 4, 30

private security see privatization of security, market for force

private security companies (PSCs) 1–3, 5, 8, 23–24, 29–30, 36, 37, 38, 40, 53, 54, 55, 58–65, 76, 77, 81, 129–31, 220, 259–60, 261

   American PSCs 146

   British PSCs 167

   commercial reputation and interest 85, 110

   cowboy model 226–28

   in Garamba 209

   in Goma Camps 198–200

   in Iraq 21–22, 239–40

   nationality of personnel 2

   services offered 16–22, 48

   South African PSCs 158–67

   “starched shirt” model 226, 228

private security consultant to WWF 211–12

private security industry 3–7

   characteristics of 144

   consumer demand for 144–45

   revenues 8

privatization 22, 24–25, 32, 35–36, 38, 40, 47, 57, 58, 78, 80–81

privatization of security 39, 40, 49, 253, 254, 256, 259, 263

   and the control of force 3, 4–5, 6–7, 40, 43

   financing of security 70–76, 78, 178–218

   see also market for force

professional military see military professionalism

public 23–24

public goods 27, 34, 62, 155

public institutions 46–48, 61–62, 76, 81, 140, 146

   in South Africa 167

public sphere 3

public/private divide 23

   choice 24

   comparison between 4, 43

Ramsbotham, General Sir David 9

rational legal authority 45, 59, 63, 71

rationalist 56

rebel forces 70, 71

redistribution of power 60, 91–92, 145

   in Croatia 110

   in Sierra Leone 114–15

   in the US 146

Redlich, Fritz 246

Refugees International 238

regulation 65–70, 144, 145

   dilemmas of 144–45, 177

   in Britain 170, 173, 175

   in late Middle Ages 246

   in South Africa 161

   in US 149–51

reinforcing process of control 6, 7, 40–45, 56–57, 61, 62, 63, 65, 72, 76, 82, 113, 120, 136–38, 139–40, 218, 255, 256

   in Italian City States 250

   uncertainty of 251–52

Reno, Will 92, 185, 251

rent seeking 58

rentier state 181

Research Triangle Institute 2, 239

Resistancia Nacional Mocambicana (RENAMO) 172

Revolutionary United Front (RUF) 84

Robertson, Lord 222

Ron, James 201

Rubicon, International 169

SAIC 18, 121, 122, 124

Saladin 169

sanctioning 43, 58, 71

Sandline 17, 18, 19, 169

   in Sierra Leone 92, 97, 98, 171, 172, 174–75, 232, 237

Saracen 19, 159, 160, 166, 210–11, 213

Saro-Wiwa, Ken 184, 186, 236

Saudi Arabia 152

Saudi Arabian forces 148

Saxena, Rakesh 93, 95

Schakowsky, Jan 129

screening and selection 56, 59, 133

Secrets 18

September 11th 7, 34, 160

service industries 66

Seven Years War 28

Sewell, John 102

Shearer, David 5, 6, 52–53, 55–56, 238

Shell, Royal Dutch 16, 77, 184–85, 187, 188–92, 236, 255

   Shell business principles 190

   Shell police 184

Shibata 160

Sierra Leone 7, 39, 68, 77, 139, 160, 170, 171, 172, 174–75, 225–26, 232, 237, 240, 255

   and contracting for security services 82–98

Sierra Leone Army (RSLMF) 85–98

Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) 84

Silver Shadow 19

Silverstein, Ken 4, 5, 156

Singer, Peter 16, 155

Sky Air Cargo Service 171

Sobel 84

social norms and practices 3, 49, 51, 63, 75, 81, 134, 143, 145

socialization 56

sociological institutionalism 49–54, 71, 79

soldiers of fortune see mercenaries

Soruss 89

South Africa 39, 67, 77, 145, 220, 256, 260, 262

   and citizens working illegally in Iraq 163, 235

   human security 162, 158

   Regulation of Foreign Military Assistance Act 161–63, 165

   regulation of security service exports 157–67

   regulatory environment 161

South African Defense Force (SADF) 164, 211

South African National Defense Force (SANDF) 211

Southern Cross Security (SCS) 19, 160, 166

sovereign transactions/services 47–49, 54, 58, 61, 81

sovereignty 43, 52, 59, 257–58, 264

Soyster, Harry “Ed” 104

Spicer, Tim 227–31

standards 56, 68, 71, 74

   see also military professionalism: military professional norms and standards

state, the 18, 23–24, 27, 45, 46, 257–58

   definition of 1

   state building 63, 76

   see also strong states, weak states

Stevens, Siaka 83, 84

Stirling, Sir David 169

Strasser, Valentine 89

Strategic Resources Corporation 160

strong states 7, 59, 60, 71, 256, 259

   as distinguished from weak states in contracting for security 81–82

Sudan 160, 209

Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA) 205, 209

Sumairco 19

Susak, Gojko 101, 106

Taliban 224

Tallman, Gary 227

TASK International 21

Taylor, Charles 94

Terry, Fiona 196–97, 200, 201

Thatcher, Margaret 35

Thirty Years War 245, 247, 250

Thomson, Janice 30, 247

threat environment 21, 33–34, 62

THULE Global Security International 20

tip of the spear 16–22

Titan 2, 235

Tito 98

Total Security Services International 149

transaction cost economics 46–49

TransAfrica Logistics 159

transnational corporations (TNCs) 30, 38, 71, 72, 74, 76, 148, 180–192, 257

transnational market see market for force

transparency 60, 74, 82, 154

Trojan Securities International 18, 21

Tudjman, Franjo 99–108, 139, 153

United Kingdom see Britain

United Nations 34, 37, 69, 170, 171, 198, 199, 203

   and private security 9, 198–200, 237–38

   and South African PSCs 166

   United Nations Department of Peace Keeping (DPKO) 195–200

   United Nations Global Compact 187

   United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 195–97, 201–02

   United Nations peace missions 29, 37

     and DSL 9

     and private security 7, 19, 149

     UNAMSIL 95

   United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Use of Mercenaries 230–31

United States 1, 4, 7, 29, 31–32, 38, 39, 77, 139, 145, 220–28, 256, 259–61, 262

   Commission on Roles and Missions 146

   contracts for security 113–38

   contracts for security in Iraq 131

   contracts for security in Vietnam 114–15

   Department of State Embargo Chart 150

   Department of State Office of Defense Trade Controls 149

   DFARS 235

   International Military Education and Training (IMET) 121

   international transfer of arms regulations 149–51

   LOGCAP 147

   MPRI's license for Equatorial Guinea 154

   outsourcing ROTC training 116–20, 132

   privatization movement in 24, 35

   regulation of security service exports 146–57

   regulatory environment 149–51

United States Army 2, 19, 174

United States military 35, 176

Unocal 236

US Defense Systems 20, 149

Vinnell 9, 18, 20, 114, 121, 125, 131, 148

   in Saudi Arabia 151

Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights 187–88

Vukadinovic, Rudocar 111

Vuono, Carl 102, 103–04

Wackenhut 20

Wallenstein, Albrecht von 245, 249

warlords 182

Watchguard International 18, 206

weak states 7, 36, 59, 60, 61, 63, 70–71, 75, 224

   as distinguished from strong states in contracting for security 81–82

   and private financing for security 178–218

Weber, Max 1, 2, 58

Williamson, Oliver 3, 46, 54–55, 57, 58

World Bank 34, 35, 170, 241–42

World Food Program 149, 195

World Wildlife Fund 205, 206–15

WWF Cameroon 242–44

Yugoslavia 9, 99

Zaire see Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Zairean Camp Security Operation (ZCSO) 196

Zairean troops 196–97

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