Inside Rebellion

Index

abductions, by Renamo, 113–15, 145–47, 183, 230

accountability, formal instruments of, 348–50

activists

   changes/shifts from, 259, 265, 281–83, 294, 296

   opportunists and, 9–11, 53, 126, 199, 204–08, 259, 265, 281–83, 294, 296, 299–300, 327–28, 329–32, 340, 349–50

   resilience, norms and expectations of, 11

   responses to shocks by, 263–65

   violence by, 198, 204–08, 229

adverse selection, 41, 43, 102, 130

AFDL. See Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Kinshasa

affiliation of victims

   NRA and, 215, 216, 252

   Renamo and, 215, 216, 252

   Sendero–Huallaga and, 215, 216, 252, 254

   Sendero Luminoso Nacional and, 215, 216, 252

   violence and, 215, 216, 252, 367

Afghanistan, 6, 342–43

Afoaku, Osita, 338

Africa Livre, 331–32

Africa Watch, 232

African National Congress, 76, 270

agency

   model of managerial behavior, 13

   structure and, 20–22, 327

agrarian reforms, in Peru, 187–89

agriculture. See also coca production; food resources; poppies

   in Mozambique, 74

   as resource, 48, 173

   taxation and, 67, 190–91

AIS. See Islamic Salvation Army

Algeria

   1962–1964, 312–15

   1992–2000, 315–18

Alien Torts Claim Act, 348

All People’s Congress, 302, 332

Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Kinshasa (AFDL), 335–37

Alto Huallaga. See Huallaga Valley; Sendero Luminoso–Huallaga

Alur group, in Uganda, 219–20, 222–24

Amin, Idi, 227

   deaths during dictatorship of, 64

   economy under, 56, 64, 67

   insurgency against, 57

   Obote v., 64, 66

   overthrow of, 61, 62, 64, 67–69

   regime collapse of, 56

amnesty, 261, 348. See also ley de arrepentimiento

   Obote promising, 267

   in Peru, 277, 278, 280

Amnesty International, 343, 344

anarchy, in states, 36–37

andaki (prisons), 226

Angola, 260, 283–87, 311

   arms purchases by, 285–87, 293

   Congo and, 335–37

   endowment shocks in, 292–95

   interviews in, 356

   oil and, 285, 286, 293

   Portugal and, 283–84, 285

   refugees in Zambia, 283, 284

   South Africa, diamonds and, 284, 285–87, 293–94

anticolonialism, 283–87, 312–15

António, Manuel, 272–74

apartheid, 79, 80

   in South Africa, 79, 272, 286

apprenticeship, 105

Arciniega, Alberto, 256

Armed Forces Revolutionary Council, 340

Armed Islamic Group (GIA), 315–17

Armenia, ethnic genocides in, 6

arms purchases, 93, 101

   by Angola, 285–87, 293

assassinations, 201, 222–24

   of Adda, 222–24

   of Akuya, 222–24

   of Jaime, 89, 91

   of Josua, 222–24

   of Lutta, 222–24

   massacres v., 215

   NRA and, 219–29

   of Senyenya, 222–24

asymmetric conflict, 55

   between state and insurgency, 325

asymmetries, information, 41–42, 43, 100, 103, 208–09

authoritarianism

   in Algeria, 315

   economic endowments, coercion and, 260

   in Sendero–Huallaga, 164, 192–95

authorities

   centralized, communism and, 31

   traditional, Renamo and, 164, 181–86

autocratic rule, democracy v., 165–67

Ayacucho, Peru

   Sendero Nacional in, 57–58, 81–83, 87, 89, 117, 120, 125, 150, 156, 187–88, 217, 243–51, 276

   violence in, 243–48

Baganda tribe, in Uganda, 36, 55–56, 142, 176–80

   Kabaka Yekka and, 66

   opposition to Obote regime, 63–64, 65–66, 109, 110, 222, 226–28

bandidos armados (armed bandits), 230

bandits, 230

   in Colombia, 319–22

   roving, 169

   stationary, 169

bank robberies, by NRA, 268, 293

Banyankole, in Uganda, 36, 55–56, 57, 67, 68, 108–11, 142

bargains

   governance and, 164, 168–72, 174–75, 196

   for resources, 339, 341–42

   violence and, 208–09

barriers to organization

   initial conditions and, 7, 14–15, 20–22

   resources and, 329–30

   social endowments and, 24, 48–49

   weak states and, 341

bases de apoyo (bases of support), 240

Bates, Robert, 54

batongole (chiefs), 176–77

Belaúnde, Fernando, 81–82, 85–87, 275

Ben Bella, Ahmed, 314

Berbers, 315

Bermúdez, Francisco, 81

Bicesse Accords, 286

Binaisa, Godfrey, 65

“Black October,” 315

blocos system, for food collection, 185

Bolivia, 290, 292

Bolshevism, 31, 39

Bowles, Samuel, 133–34

British colonialism, 55–56, 65, 176

brutality, 18

Burundi, 311

cabos de terra (régulos’ deputies), 182–83

Cabral, Amilcar, 31

Caiaia, Mozambique, 238

Cambodia, 6

Canxixe, Mozambique, 235–36

capitalism

   communism v., 340

   Renamo, Frelimo, democracy and, 78, 80

   Yankee imperialism and, 84

Central Intelligence Organization (CIO), Rhodesia, 72, 76, 111

centralism, democratic, 144, 154–55

centralization

   control and, 128, 158–59

   decentralization v., 38, 44, 158–59, 349–50

   in Renamo, 127, 145–49, 230

certification regimes, 346–47

characteristics of victims, 367

Chechnya, 5

chefes de povacão (régulos’ deputies), 182, 183

China, 6, 31, 306

Christians, 322–25

CIO. See Central Intelligence Organization

civil wars

   causes of, 16

   deaths from, 4–6, 18

   defining violence in, 199–02

   definitions of, 16–17

   “new” and “old,” 19, 339–40

   origins and nature of, 16

   revolutions v., 35

   subnational variation within, 199

   types of, 17

   violence across, patterns of, 305–11

   violence, database on, 366–67

   violence, organization and, 16–20, 199

   violence within, 16, 217–58

civilians. See also noncombatants; resistance

   abuse/violence and, 16, 24, 199–200

   Mao and Guevara on treatment of, 30

   organization, violence and, 203–08

   rebels blending with, 203

   relationships with, 148, 163–97, 203–08, 262, 277–78, 282–83, 339

   support and control of, 23, 27, 38, 69–70, 91–94, 203–08

   violence against, in Mozambique, 230–32

   violence against, in Peru, 240–41, 242, 243

   violence against, in Uganda, 220–22

   violence against, patterns of, 300–01

   violence against, Sendero - Huallaga and, 252, 253

   war experience of, 4

Clayton, Anthony, 313

closed hegemony, 167

coca production

   in Colombia, 281, 290–92

   crop substitution for, 93–94, 279–80, 281

   financing through, 50, 58

   Sendero–Huallaga and, 50, 58, 89–95, 96, 122–25, 155–58, 192–95, 251–58, 279–82

cocaleros, 122–25, 256

codes and rules

   control and, 127, 137, 140–45, 152–55, 156–58

   for NRA, 140–45, 225–26, 371

   for Sendero–Huallaga, 156–58

   for Sendero Nacional, 152–55, 375

coercion, 23, 28

   economic endowments, authoritarianism and, 260

   Renamo and, 113–16, 236–37

   resistance and, 198

   social mobilization v., 295–96

   violence and, 198, 199, 202

coffee, in Uganda, 67, 268–69

Cold War, 19, 31, 340. See also post-Cold War period

   external patronage during, 308, 342–43

   U.S. and Soviet Union during, 61, 75, 285–86, 342–43

collective action

   grievances motivating, 46–47

   indoctrination, hierarchy, discipline and, 39

   networks and, 49, 111

   nonmaterial benefits for, 40

   political opportunities, social movements and, 45–46, 55–56

   recruitment and, 42–43, 45, 51, 97–100, 105, 107, 111

   solidarity and, 48–49

collective goods. See also public goods

   free rider problem with, 42–43, 98

   from states, 37–38, 97–100

collective punishment, massacres as, 243, 250–51

Colombia

   1948–1963, 318–22

   coca production in, 281, 290–92

   communism in, 288–89, 318–19

   deaths in Congo v., 5

   economy in, 318–19, 321–22

   FARC and, 283, 287–94

   resilience and, 260

   Sendero–Huallaga and, 91, 92, 94, 193, 279–80, 281

colonialism. See also anticolonialism

   British, 55–56, 65, 176

   in Mozambique, 57, 61, 72, 73–75, 78, 96, 111, 181–85

   Portuguese, 57, 61, 72, 73–75, 96, 111, 283–84, 285

combatants. See also noncombatants

   interviews with, 23

   motivations of, 27

Comité Regional del Alto Huallaga (CRH). See Sendero Luminoso– Huallaga

Comité Zonal Fundamental, 255

Comité Zonal Principal, 255

Comité Zonal Ucayali, 255

comités populares abiertos (open people’s committees), 188–92, 240, 251

commitment

   credible, governance and, 167–73, 175, 196

   as discount rate, 102, 106

   recruitment and, 8–9, 102, 103, 104, 107, 118–19, 126

communal villages, in Mozambique, 3–4, 74, 78, 181, 235–37, 238, 331

communism, 21

   in Africa, 75

   capitalism v., 340

   centralized authority and, 31

   in Colombia, 288–89, 318–19

   Guzmán and, 85

   Pye on, 39

   in Southeast Asia, 20

Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist), 32, 301–05

community governance, 130–34

comparative method

   case studies and, 53–54

   congruence with, 54

   process tracing with, 54

competitive oligarchies, 167

conflict

   asymmetric, 53–55, 302–03, 325

   dynamics of, 265–82

Congo, Democratic Republic of, 335–39

   deaths in Colombia v., 5

   ethnic groups in, 27, 336–37

   Guevara in, 33–34

   interviews in, 356

Congolese Democracy Rally, 336, 338–39

Congolese Liberation Movement, 336, 338–39

congruence, 54

constraints, origins of, 50–53

consumers, 8–9, 102

contestation

   control and, 11–13, 37–38, 59, 199, 208–10, 217, 219, 258–59

   inclusiveness, power sharing and, 165–67

contracts

   expectations and, 44–45

   incentives and, 40–43, 101, 102

control, 127–59. See also territorial control.

   centralization and, 128, 158–59

   codes, rules and, 127, 137, 140–45, 152–55, 156–58

   contestation and, 11–13, 37–38, 59, 199, 208–10, 217, 219, 258–59

   cooperation and, 129, 130–34, 136–40, 142–43, 158

   through críticia y autocrítica, 118–19, 152–54

   decentralization and, 131, 134, 138, 158–59, 204

   defection and, 127–28, 131–33, 139–40, 145, 155–58, 203–06, 209–10

   discipline and, 23, 43–44, 88, 140

   education/training and, 128, 136–38, 140–47

   external checks and, 9, 140

   hierarchy and, 127–28, 129, 133–34, 148–49, 165

   in practice, 140–58

   strategies for, 135–40

cooperation. See also norms of cooperation and reciprocity

   control and, 129, 130–34, 136–40, 142–43, 158

   governance, commitment and, 169–71

cooperative equilibrium, 132, 152

cooperatives, 130–34

corruption

   drugs and, 90, 194–95

   in Sendero–Huallaga, 55, 157, 194–95

   in Uganda, 56

costly induction, 105, 106–07, 263

counterinsurgency

   in Algeria, 317

   in Peru, 87–89, 94, 212, 241, 243, 248, 250, 256, 257, 275–79, 292

   resilience and, 261, 295

   states and, 6, 37, 87–89

counternarcotics operations, 94, 123–24, 279–82

counterterrorism, 157, 279–82, 357, 358

CPN(M). See Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)

craft organizations, 135–36

credibility

   through challenging government, 51

   recruitment and, 101, 105–06

   resources and, 44

credible commitment, 167–73, 175, 196

CRH. See Sendero Luminoso– Huallaga

crimes

   families, 128

   punishment for, NRA and, 226

criminal activity, 7, 47

   drugs and, 47, 255

criminal organizations, 20

criminals, recruitment of, 104, 120

Cristina, Orlando, 72, 111

críticia y autocrítica (criticism and self-criticism), 118–19, 124, 152–54

Cuba, 31, 285

cupos (tax), 190–91, 192–95, 255–56

Dahl, Robert, 164–67

data, 58–60

   biases and limitations with, 368–70

   coding/collecting, 368

   from interviews, 58–60, 202, 258, 358, 363–64

   research design and, 53–60

   on violence, 59, 202, 258, 366–67

de Jeney, 31

deaths. See also specific countries

   during Amin dictatorship, 64

   from civil wars, 4–6, 18

   combat-related, 305–08, 311–12, 326

   in Mozambique, 79, 80, 211

   during Obote government, 71

decentralization

   centralization v., 38, 44, 158–59, 349–50

   control and, 131, 134, 138, 158–59, 204

   of Sendero Nacional, 84, 85, 89, 90, 149–55

defection

   control and, 127–28, 131–33, 139–40, 145, 155–58, 203–06, 209–10

   force with, 44

   identification of, 10

   preventing, 127–28, 147–49, 171–72, 185–86, 192, 195

   punishing, 18, 58, 203–06

   sanctions and, 43

   violence and, 198, 209–10, 224–25, 227, 228–29, 299–300, 317–18

Defense and Development Front of Leoncio Prado Province, 89

Degregori, Carlos Iván, 275–76

delegados (delegates), 193–94

democracy

   autocratic rule v., 165–67

   elite, Sendero Nacional as alternative to, 186–92

   governance and, 163, 164–67, 186–92

   of NRA, 143–45, 163, 175–80

   Renamo, Frelimo and, 78, 80, 181–82

democratic centralism, 144, 154–55

denunciations. See defection; naming and shaming

DESCO (Peruvian nongovernmental org.), 241

Dhlakama, Aphonso, 76, 79, 111, 145, 148, 274

diamonds, 192

   Angola, South Africa and, 284, 285–87, 293–94

   certification regimes and, 346–47

   financing through, 50, 284, 285–87, 293–94, 303, 306–07, 332, 334

DINCOTE (Dirección Nacional Contra el Terrorismo), 281

discipline

   conscious, 144, 152

   control and, 23, 43–44, 88, 140

   indiscipline and, 7, 10, 71, 143–45, 225–29

   and indiscipline in NRA, 71, 143–45, 225–29, 269–70

   indoctrination, hierarchy, collective action and, 39

   Mao on, 29–30

   prisons for, 226

discount rates, 102, 106

Doe, Samuel, 334–35

drugs. See also coca production; poppies

   corruption and, 90, 194–95

   criminal activity and, 47, 255

   FARC and, 287–88, 293–94

   financing through, 47, 50, 58, 93, 303, 306–07

   as lootable resource, 48

   Sendero–Huallaga and, 14, 36, 55, 58, 89–95, 96, 122–25, 155–58, 192–95, 251–58, 279–82, 291–92

   taxation and, 92–93, 124, 156, 192–95, 255–56, 291–92

“Dutch disease” problem, 52

economic change, social discontent and, 34–36

economic endowments, 7, 14, 22, 329. See also resources

   authoritarianism, coercion and, 260

   changes in, 262, 263

   as fixed and exogenous, 50

   governance and, 171–72, 173

   social endowments v., 47–52, 101–02, 103–04, 210–11, 299–300

   sources for, 7, 47–48

economic inequality, 27, 55–56

economic theory, of rebellion, 19

economy

   under Amin, 56, 64, 67

   in Colombia, 318–19, 321–22

   of Lebanon, 324

   in Mozambique, 74, 78–79, 80

   organization and, 39–50

   in Peru, 82–84, 90–91, 123, 276–77, 290–92

   public goods and, 55

   sanctions and, 346–48

   in Uganda, 56, 64, 65–67

education. See also indoctrination; reeducation camps

   and age of recruits, in Mozambique, 114–15

   and age of recruits, in Sendero Nacional, 119, 120

   control, training and, 128, 136–38, 140–47

   in Peru, 83, 96, 116–17, 118–21, 189, 191

   recruitment and, 103, 106, 114–15, 116–17, 118–21, 303–04

El Salvador, 99–100, 352

Elliott, David, 352

Emmerich, Andreas, 31

endowments. See also economic endowments; initial conditions; initial endowments; social endowments

   impacts of, 260, 261–62, 296

   recruitment and, 100–02, 103–07, 125–26, 301–05

   shocks in Angola and Colombia, 292–95

ethnic antagonism, 27

ethnic genocides, 6, 16

ethnic groups, 22

   in Congo, 27, 336–37

   CPN(M) and, 301, 304

   in Liberia, 334

   in Mozambique, 3, 36, 55–56, 61, 73–74, 331

   NRA and, 14, 142

   in Peru, 61

   recruitment and, 96, 108–11

   in Renamo, 112, 113

   social endowments and, 7, 9

   status concerns of, 35–36

   in Uganda, 1, 36, 55–56, 57, 61, 65–67, 142, 219–26

ethnography

   distinct challenges of, 354–55

   of rebel organizations, 58, 365

event, as unit of analysis, 202, 367

executions

   of recruits, 142–43, 147

   of Zabron, 226

expectations, 7

   norms and, 7, 11, 125–26, 134, 140, 158

   norms, shared beliefs, social endowments and, 7, 48–49, 136–40, 170–71

   resilience and, 11, 44–45

   shocks and, 261–62, 295–96

   violence and, 205–08, 217–19

external checks, 9, 140

external patronage

   during Cold War, 308, 342–43

   Lebanon and, 324

   Renamo and, 14, 71–81

   support from, 7, 47, 48, 50, 173, 307, 311, 330–31

   uses for, 331

   violence and, 209

Fanon, Frantz, 31, 110

FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), 283, 287–94

Fearon, James, 305–07, 329

Ferro Medina, Juan Guillermo, 292

financing. See also economic endowments

   through diamonds, 50, 284, 285–87, 293–94, 303, 306–07, 332, 334

   through drugs, 47, 50, 58, 93, 303, 306–07

   raising capital and, 7

FIS. See Islamic Salvation Front

flechas (exiles in Rhodesia), 111–12, 113

FLN. See Front de Libération National

Flowers, Ken, 76

food resources

   organizing, 174–75

   supplying rebels with, 2, 3, 4, 7, 29, 97, 163, 164, 178–79, 184–85

force

   with defection, 44

   path dependence and, 260

   persuasive and selective, 203–04

   with recruitment, 33, 113–16, 311

   social endowments and, 260

Fourah Bay College students, 302, 304, 332–33

France, 312–15

free rider problem, with collective goods, 42–43, 98

Freeman, Jo, 47

Frelimo, 67, 72–81, 111, 112

   criticisms of, 79

   Marxist-Leninist agenda of, 74

   peace talks between Renamo and, 80, 186, 232, 272, 356

   Renamo and, 78, 80, 111–13, 181–82, 185–86, 229–30, 232, 235–39, 270–71, 272, 331–32

   socialism and, 3, 61, 73, 75, 78–79, 80, 181, 229–30

Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique). See Frelimo

FRONASA. See Front for National Salvation

Front de Libération National (FLN), 312–15

Front for National Salvation (FRONASA)

   Kikoosi Maluum alliance with, 67–69

   Lule and, 64–65, 68

   Museveni and, 64, 67–69, 108

Fujimori, Alberto, 88, 94, 275, 276–77

Gaitán, Jorge Eliécer, 288, 319, 320, 321

García, Alan, 87, 88, 94, 275, 276–77

Geneva Conventions

   on human rights, 343

   on violence, 200, 201

genocides, 18

   ethnic, 6, 16

   by states/governments, 6, 16, 211

Gersony, Robert, 232

Ghana, exiles in, 333

GIA. See Armed Islamic Group

Giap, Vo Nguyen, 31

Gintis, Herbert, 133–34

Giraldo, Juan Fernando, 319–20

Goodwin, Jeffrey, 98

Gorongosa, Mozambique, 112, 145, 230, 236, 272

governance, 18, 163–97

   bargains and, 164, 168–72, 174–75, 196

   challenges of, 167–75

   community, 130–34

   credible commitment and, 167–73, 175, 196

   democracy and, 163, 164–67, 186–92

   economic endowments and, 171–72, 173

   hierarchies and, 176–80, 195–96

   incentives and, 44

   inclusiveness and, 164, 172–74, 192–95

   power sharing and, 164, 165–67, 169, 173, 179, 192, 195–96

   in practice, 175–95

   productivity and, 167–68, 171

   rebel groups and, 169–71

   reputations and, 168

   resistance and, 44, 163, 192

   resources and, 163, 164, 169–70, 173, 190–91, 195–97

   security and, 163, 168, 175, 180

   social endowments, organization and, 164, 170–71

   structures of, 5, 6, 23, 44

   taxation and, 164, 176, 192–95

   territorial control and, 163, 164, 169, 195

   time horizons and, 172

   trust in, 134, 167–69

   variations in, 164–66, 167

Greece, 353

Green Book Study Club, 332

Green Line, 325

grievances, 35–36, 46–47

Grupo Dinamizador, 230

Guatemala, 6

guerilla warfare, 28–34, 203

   in Nepal, 32

   resources in, 29

Guevara, Che, 29–34

   in Congo, 33–34

   on indiscipline, 30

   on insurgents’ qualities, 29

   on state control, 95

   on terrorism and violence, 30–31

   on treatment of civilians, 30

Gurr, Ted, 313

Guzmán, Abimael, 56–57, 81–82, 117

   capture/fall of, 82, 88, 94, 212, 215, 252, 281

   criticism and self-criticism and, 154

   ideologies of, 84–85, 91, 125, 150–52, 154

   Marxism and, 57, 81, 84

   on massacres, 276

   terrorism by, 87

Haiti, 306

Harff, Barbara, 313

health care

   in Mozambique, 80

   from rebel groups, 73, 97, 180

   from Red Cross, 186

   from states, 37, 38

Hema and Lendu ethnic groups, 27

Herbst, Jeffrey, 344–45

hierarchies

   control and, 127–28, 129, 133–34, 148–49, 165

   governance and, 176–80, 195–96

   importance of, 133–34

   indoctrination, discipline, collective action and, 39

   of organizations, 40–41

Huallaga Valley. See also Sendero Luminoso–Huallaga; Upper Huallaga Valley

   characteristics of migrants to, 122–23

   economy/occupations in, 123

   violence in, 15

Huanta Province, Peru, 243–51

human rights violations

   coding of atrocities and, 18

   in Peru, 87, 88, 277

   policy makers and, 343–45

   sanctions and, 347

   trials, tribunals and, 348–49

Human Rights Watch, 337, 338–39, 343, 344–45

Iapala, Mozambique, 238

identities. See also ethnic groups; religions

   ideologies and, 48–49, 52, 98–100, 101, 125, 140, 158, 204

   recruitment and, 96, 98–100, 139–40

ideologies, 196–97

   of Guzmán, 84–85, 91, 125, 150–52, 154

   identities and, 48–49, 52, 98–100, 101, 125, 140, 158, 204

   indoctrination, costly induction and, 105, 106–07

   leadership and, 21–22

   participation and, 8

   of Sendero–Huallaga, 156–58, 196–97

   of Sendero Nacional, 14, 55, 58, 84–85, 88, 90, 91, 94–95, 96, 116–21, 150–55, 156–58, 196–97

   social endowments and, 7, 9, 49, 51–52

incentives

   contracts and, 40–43, 101, 102

   control and, 43–44

   governance and, 44

   for participation, 8–9, 20, 37–38, 41–42, 97–98, 100–02, 115–16, 303–04

   payoffs and, 9, 40, 101, 103–04, 105–07, 138–40

   principal-agent problems and, 44, 130–34

inclusive hegemonies, 167

inclusiveness

   contestation, power sharing and, 165–67

   governance and, 164, 172–74, 192–95

   power sharing and, 165–67, 173, 195–96

indiscipline

   discipline and, 2, 10, 71, 143–45, 225–29

   Guevara on, 30

   public trials for, 145

   Renamo and, 55, 127, 145–49, 236

   in UHV, 14

indoctrination

   costly induction, ideologies and, 105, 106–07

   hierarchy, discipline, collective action and, 39

   recruitment and, 105, 106–07, 118–19, 121, 124

informants, killing of, 1, 2

information, 263

   endowments, recruitment and, 100–02, 103–07, 125–26

information asymmetries, 41–42, 43, 100

   signaling and, 103, 208–09

initial conditions. See also endowments

   barriers to organization and, 7, 14–15, 20–22

   leaders’ choices and, 40, 125, 327–28

   strategy, resources and, 20–22, 23, 101–02, 125, 327–28

initial endowments, 7–10, 13–14, 47, 53, 95, 125. See also economic endowments; resources; social endowments

insurgent competition, resources and, 330–31

insurgents, qualities of, 29

International Criminal Court, 339, 348

International Criminal Tribunals, 348

International Institute for Strategic Studies, 306

International Monetary Fund, 80

International Rescue Committee, 338

interviews

   bias/credibility of, 364–65

   with combatants, 23

   data from, 58–60, 202, 258, 358, 363–64

   ethnography of organizations and, 365

   with Maheba refugee camp, 283, 284

   with noncombatants, 18

investors, 8–9, 102

Iraq, 342

irregular warfare, conventional v., 201, 202

Islamic Salvation Army (AIS), 316–17

Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), 315

Islamist organizations, in Algeria, 315–17

Israel, 324

Italy, social capital in, 49

Jaime, Tito, 89, 91

Japão, 236–37

Jiménez, Benedicto, 93

Johnson faction, 334, 335

kabaka, 63–64, 110

Kabaka Yekka

   Baganda and, 66

   UPC alliance with, 63–64

Kabila, Laurent, 336–39, 340

kadogos (uneducated men in Congo), 337

Kagame, Paul, 228

Kalyvas, Stathis, 19

   on GIA massacres, 316, 317

   on Greece, 353

   on violence, 45, 202

Kampala, Uganda, 69, 71, 108, 109, 179, 265, 269–70

Kamya, Moses, 224

Karl, Terry, 165

Karzai, Hamid, 343

Kayiira, Andrew, 227–28

Kenya, 74

kiboko (a beating), 226

Kikoosi Maluum, in Uganda, 64, 67–69

killings

   in Chechnya v. Mozambique, 5

   of informants, 1, 2

   mass, by states/governments, 6, 16, 211, 306

   and raping by Ugandan soldiers, 1–2

Kimberly Certification Process, 347

King, Charles, 199, 258

kinship ties, 49

Kiwanguzi, NRA in, 226–29

Krahn ethnic group, 334

Kriger, Norma, 353

La Violencia, in Colombia, 318–22

Laitin, David, 305–06

large-N analysis, 305, 326

leadership

   choices, initial conditions and, 40, 125, 327–28

   ideology and, 21–22

   responses to shocks by, 264

   roles of, 51–52

   trust between recruits and, 101

Lebanon, 322–26

Leitenberg, Milton, 313

Leninism

   críticia y autocrítica and, 118–19

   Frelimo on Marxism and, 74

   Guzmán on, 84

ley de arrepentimiento (amnesty program), 277, 280

Liberia

   ethnic groups in, 334

   RUF and, 303, 332

   Taylor, Charles, RUF and, 303, 333–34

Liberian Peace Council, 334, 335

Libya

   Fourah Bay College students and, 302

   RUF and, 303, 333–34

Lichbach, Mark, 45, 98

Lima, Peru, 87, 250

Lithuania, Soviet Union and, 99, 352–53

Lonrho company, 271–72

lootability

   of resources, 48, 330–31

looting

   by NRA, 225–26

   by Renamo, 271–72

   by soldiers/rebels, 70, 101, 116, 148

Lord’s Resistance Army, 27, 344–45

Lukumbi Village, Uganda, 1–2

Lule, Yusuf

   FRONASA and, 64–65, 68

   NRA and, 64–65, 68, 70

Luwero Triangle, Uganda, 62, 69–71, 108–10, 111, 176–80, 219–26, 265–67

macropolitics, of rebellion, 39

Macua and Makonde ethnic groups, 331

Magara, Sam, 142–43

Maheba refugee camp, Zambia, 283, 284

Malawi, 271–72, 331–32

Malayan Communist Party, 39

Mali, 306

Mamdani, Mahmood, 176

mandos (commanders), 192, 193, 240–41, 247, 249–50, 256

Mao Tse-tung, 29–32. See also Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)

   on discipline, 29–30

   Nepal and, 32

   on politics, 30

   recruitment and, 29, 110, 117

   Sendero Nacional and, 57, 81, 84, 87, 156

   on state control, 95

   on treatment of civilians, 30

   UNITA on, 285

maps, 359, 360–62

Marínguè Village, Mozambique, 3–4, 113, 145, 230, 235–36, 237

market forces, peasant protests and, 8

Maronites, 322–23

Marxism

   Frelimo on Leninism and, 74

   Guzmán and, 57, 81, 84

massacres, 201, 210, 309–11

   in Afghanistan, 6

   as collective punishment, 243, 250–51

   escalation of, 317–18

   in Peru, 250–51, 275–76

   size of, 213–15, 243

material interests, recruitment and, 96, 299, 328–29

material support, to rebellion, 97

Matsangaissa, André, 72, 76, 111

Meerten, Donny, 321

membership

   of organizations, factors shaping, 6

   structures, violence and, 198, 204–08, 210–11, 217–19, 259, 340

   time horizons and governance, 172

Mensheviks, 31

Metaveia, 181–82, 237

method of difference, 54

micropolitics

   of rebellion, 20, 38–39, 54, 305, 354

   of violence, 339

militants, sympathizers v., 99

Mill, John Stuart, 54

Miller, Gary, 136–37

minerals, as resource, 47, 48, 171

Mobutu Sese Seko, 33, 335–39

Moe, Terry, 40

Momoh, Joseph, 333

Mondlane, Eduardo, 73

moral hazard, 43–44

   productivity and, 41–42

Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA), 241

Mozambican National Resistance. See Renamo

Mozambique. See also Frelimo; Renamo; specific regions

   age and education of recruits in, 114–15

   colonialism in, 57, 61, 72, 73–75, 78, 96, 111, 181–85

   communal villages in, 3–4, 74, 78, 181, 235–37, 238, 331

   deaths in, 79, 80, 211

   economy in, 74, 78–79, 80

   ethnic groups in, 3, 36, 55–56, 61, 73–74, 331

   health facilities and schools in, 80

   interviews in, 357, 358–64

   killings in Chechnya v., 5

   political transition in, 56

   Portugal, and, 57, 61, 72, 73–75, 96, 111, 112

   rebellions in, 32

   reeducation camps in, 56, 72, 74–75, 111–12

   violence in, 3–4, 13–14, 15, 202, 211, 230–32

MPLA. See Popular Movement for Liberation of Angola

MRTA. See Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru

mudjibas (local militias), 183–84, 185–86, 236

Museveni, Yoweri, 57, 62–63

   FRONASA and, 64, 67–69, 108

   NRA and, 57, 62–63, 67–71, 108, 109, 125, 140–44, 145, 175, 178, 196, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227–28, 266, 268, 269

   on violence, 220, 224, 225, 226, 228–29

Muslims, 322–25

Mutesa II, Sir Edward, 63–64

Muwanga, Paulo, 62–63

Nairobi peace talks, 71

Namibia, 286

naming and shaming, 344–45, 349

Naprama Movement, 272–74

National Human Rights Commission, 257

National Liberation Front of Angola, 284

National Patriotic Forces of Liberia (NPFL), 334–35

   Central Revolutionary Committee of, 334, 335

National Resistance Army (NRA), 356

   affiliation of victims and, 215, 216, 252

   Army Council and, 179

   assassinations and, 219–29

   bank robberies by, 268, 293

   chronology of, 68

   codes of conduct for, 140–45, 225–26, 371

   comparisons with other groups, 55–58, 61, 80–81, 88, 95, 125–26, 145, 149, 181, 184, 196–97, 232, 258–59, 299–301

   control and, 127, 140–45

   democracy of, 143–45, 163, 175–80

   discipline/indiscipline in, 71, 143–45, 225–29, 269–70

   education/training for, 140–45, 175–76, 178, 269–70

   elections and, 178

   ethnic appeals and community ties in, 108–11

   ethnic groups and, 14, 142

   expulsion and reemergence of, 265–70

   governance and, 163, 175–80, 340

   health care and, 180

   High Command of, 127, 143–44, 226

   history of, 62–71

   Kampala and, 69, 71, 108, 109, 179, 265, 269–70

   in Kiwanguzi, 226–29

   Lule and, 64–65, 68, 70

   in Luwero Triangle, 62, 69–71, 108–10, 111, 176–80, 219–26, 265–67

   military and political training in, 110–11

   Mobile Brigade of, 267–68

   Museveni and, 57, 62–63, 67–71, 108, 109, 125, 140–44, 145, 175, 178, 196, 220, 224, 225, 226, 227–29, 266, 268, 269

   Nairobi peace talks and, 71

   Nkrumah Unit of, 141–42

   political commissars in, 110, 141, 179–80

   political mobilization and discipline of, 71

   POWs and, 224

   public goods from, 180

   recruitment and, 96, 108–11, 269–70

   Renamo compared to, 80–81, 145, 149, 181, 184, 232

   resistance councils in, 2, 69, 176–80, 196, 226, 266

   resources and, 55–58, 95, 268–69

   in Semuto, 222–26

   in Singo, 265–67

   size of victim groups and, 222, 223

   Tanzania and, 62, 67–68, 108–11

   Ten-Point Programme and, 70, 177

   UNLA v., 62, 69, 70, 71, 180, 219, 222–27, 282

   violence by, 13–14, 70, 71, 212–15, 219–20, 229

National Resistance Council (NRC), 69, 108, 184

   RCs and, 179

National Resistance Movement (NRM), 69–70

   Ten-Point Programme and, 70

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola. See UNITA

Nazi Germany, 6

Ndau, in Mozambique, 36

Nepal

   Communist Party of, 32, 301–05

   death/violence, 5, 306

   guerilla war in, 32

   resources and recruitment in, 24

networks

   collective action and, 49, 111

   social endowments, norms of cooperation and reciprocity and, 48–49, 101–02, 105–06, 299–300

Nfudzu, Mozambique, 236

Nhamaika village, Mozambique, 235

Nkomati Non-Aggression Pact of 1984, 270–71, 272

noncombatants

   abuse of, 4, 5–6, 7

   interviews with, 18

   relationships with, 44, 53, 135–36, 159

   responsibility for violence against, 211–12

   support from, 45

   types of violence against, 212–13

nonmaterial benefits, for collective action, 40

nonmaterial interests, ideology and social acceptance as, 43

non-state actors, role in violence, 16

norms, 7

   expectations and, 7, 11, 125–26, 134, 140, 158

   of Sendero commanders, 152, 375

   shared beliefs, social endowments, expectations and, 7, 48–49, 136–40, 170–71

“norms entrepreneurs,” 344

norms of cooperation and reciprocity

   recruitment and, 8, 9, 43, 98–100, 101–02, 103–04, 105–06, 261–62

   social endowments, networks and, 48–49, 101–02, 105–06, 299–300

North America, 11

North, Douglass, 167–69

NPFL. See National Patriotic Forces of Liberia

NRA. See National Resistance Army

NRC. See National Resistance Council

Nyerere, Julius, 64

Obote, Milton, 109–10, 125

   Amin v., 64, 66

   amnesty promising by, 267

   Baganda opposition to, 63–64, 65–66, 109, 110, 222, 226–28

   deaths during government of, 71

   election of, 61

   Kikoosi Maluum and, 64, 67–69

   overthrow of, 13, 71, 141, 269

   UNLA, Grand Offensive and, 70, 265–69

   UNLF and, 64–65, 66, 67–69

   UPC and, 62–64, 66, 108, 219–20, 226–27

   Vvumbula Armed Forces v., 226–29

oil

   Algeria and, 315, 316

   Angola and, 285, 286, 293

   as resource, 48, 75, 171

Ojok, Oyite, 68

Okello, Tito and Basilio, 71, 269

Olson, Mancur

   on collective action, 42–43, 97–98

   on stationary bandits, 169

open people’s committees, 188–92, 240, 251

operational tactical plans, 153–54

opportunists, 14, 52–53

   activists and, 9–11, 53, 126, 199, 204–08, 259, 265, 281–83, 294, 296, 299–300, 327–28, 329–32, 340, 349–50

   changes/shifts from, 259, 265, 281–83, 294, 296

   recruitment of, 103–05, 106–07, 114, 239, 328

   responses to shocks by, 263–65

   in Sendero–Huallaga, 156–58, 281–83

   social services, state-building and, 325

   violence and, 199, 204–08, 217–19, 239, 276, 309, 326

orders

   following, 10, 20, 135

   taking, decentralization and, 131

organization(s). See also barriers to organization

   absence of, 34–39

   challenges of, 7–15, 17, 20, 28, 42–45, 54, 95, 261–62, 295

   civil war, violence and, 16–20, 199

   civilians, violence and, 203–08

   consistency of, 260, 263–64

   cooperation/specialization in, 129

   craft v. procedural, 135–36

   definition of, 19

   economics of, 39–50

   ethnography of, 58, 365

   factors shaping membership of, 6

   hierarchy of, 40–41

   initial conditions and barriers to, 7, 14–15, 20–22

   path dependence and, 259, 260, 265, 282

   productivity of, 41–42, 102, 130

   rationale for, 128–29

   responses to shocks by, 262–63, 265, 283, 295–96

   size of, 128–29

   social endowments, governance and, 164, 170–71

   structure of, 6–7, 20–23, 217–19

   Tilly on, 28, 31

   violence and, 16–20, 199, 203–08

   of violence, industrial, 27–60

organizational change, sources of, 282–95

organizational control, in practice, 140–58

organizers of revolution, 28–34

   common principles of, 28–32

   divergent practices of, 32–34

Ottaway, David and Marina, 313

outliers, 311–26

Ovimbundu peoples, in Angola, 233, 295

Palestinians, 323–24

Pan-African Union, 332–33

participation

   costs and benefits of, 7–10, 20, 21–23, 40, 101–02, 262

   ideologies and, 8

   incentives for, 8–9, 20, 37–38, 41–42, 97–98, 100–02, 115–16, 303–04

   process orientation with, 99–100

   in rebellion, 97–100

   salaries for, 47, 96, 101

partisan armies, 31

party formation, 42

path dependence

   influences on, 21, 23, 260

   organization and, 259, 260, 265, 282

   testing argument about, 54

Patton, 152

payoffs

   incentives and, 9, 40, 101, 103–04, 105–07, 115–16, 138–40

   promises and, 101–02, 103, 109–10

Peace Research Institute in Oslo (PRIO), 305–11, 313, 316, 334

peace talks

   between Frelimo and Renamo, 80, 186, 232, 272, 356

   Nairobi, 71

peasant protests, market forces and, 8

peer monitoring mechanisms, 134

people’s war, as strategy, 33–34, 69, 141

Peru. See also Sendero Luminoso; specific regions

   agrarian reforms in, 187–89

   amnesty in, 277, 278, 280

   counterinsurgency in, 87–89, 94, 212, 241, 243, 248, 250, 256, 257, 275–79, 292

   counternarcotics operations in, 94, 123–24, 279–82

   counterterrorism in, 157, 279–82, 357, 358

   economy in, 82–84, 90–91, 123, 276–77, 290–92

   education in, 83, 96, 116–17, 118–21, 189, 191

   ethnic groups in, 61

   human rights violations in, 87, 88, 277

   interviews in, 357, 358–64

   Lima, 87, 250

   massacres in, 250–51, 275–76

   political transition in, 56–57, 81–85, 88

   Quechua people in, 84, 121, 318

   terrorism in, 94

   Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 44, 88, 212, 213–17, 241–43, 359

   U.S. and, 94, 256, 279–80, 282

   violence in, 13–14, 15, 87–89, 202, 211–12, 240–41, 242, 243–48

Peruvian Communist Party, 57

Petersen, Roger, 19

   on collective action, 45

   on Lithuanians v. Soviet Union, 352–53

   on strong communities, 99

Phiri, Gimo, 149

police post, attacking of, 130–31

policy makers, 24, 287, 328

   implications for, 341–50

political commissars

   in NRA, 110, 141, 150, 179–80

   in Renamo, 146, 150, 184

political mobilization, NRA’s discipline and, 71

political opportunities

   political transition and, 95

   social movements, collective action and, 45–46, 55–56

political parties, 20

political transition, 56–57

   in Mozambique, 56

   in Peru, 56–57, 81–85, 88

   political opportunities and, 95

   in Uganda, 56

politics, Mao on, 30

polyarchy, 167

Popkin, Samuel, 8, 45, 98

poppies, 94, 290

Popular Movement for Liberation of Angola (MPLA), 284–87, 293, 294

Popular Resistance Army, 69

Portugal

   Angola and, 283–84, 285

   Mozambique and, 57, 61, 72, 73–75, 111, 112

   Renamo, Rhodesia and, 57, 72, 96, 111

post-Cold War period

   data from, 309–11

   external patronage during Cold War v., 308

power sharing

   contestation, inclusiveness and, 165–67

   governance and, 164, 165–67, 169, 173, 179, 192, 195–96

   inclusiveness and, 165–67, 173, 195–96

   between religious communities, 322–25

POWs, NRA and, 224

Prachanda, Comrade, 32

principal-agent problems

   in field of battle, 135

   incentives and, 44, 130–34

PRIO. See Peace Research Institute in Oslo

prisons, 226

   break, César and, 153–54

   Taylor, Charles, escape from, 334

process tracing, 54

productivity

   governance and, 167–68, 171

   of organizations, 41–42, 102, 130

public goods, 341

   economy and, 55

   from NRA, 180

   from Renamo, 186

   state as provider of, 61, 342

Putnam, Robert, 49

Pye, Lucian, 39

Quandt, William, 313–14

Quechua people, in Peru, 84, 121, 318

Rand Corporation, 93, 151, 352

rarray boys, in Freetown, 304

RCs. See resistance councils

Reagan, Ronald, 286

rebel government, definition of, 164

rebel troop strength, as variable, 308

rebellion

   demand and supply sides of, 35–36

   economic theory of, 19

   evolution of, 23

   macropolitics of, 39

   micropolitics of, 20, 38–39, 54, 305, 354

   participation in, 97–100

   theories of, 34–39

rebel’s choices, examining, 95

recruitment, 7, 18, 42–43, 96–126. See also participation

   adverse selection and, 41, 43, 102

   collective action and, 42–43, 45, 51, 97–100, 105, 107, 111

   commitment, 8–9, 102, 103, 104, 107, 118–19, 126

   credibility and, 101, 105–06

   of criminals, 104, 120

   education and, 103, 106, 114–15, 116–17, 118–21, 303–04

   endowments and, 100–02, 103–07, 125–26, 301–05

   ethnic groups and, 96, 108–11

   FARC and, 289–90

   forced, 33, 113–16, 311

   identities and, 96, 98–100, 139–40

   indoctrination and, 105, 106–07, 118–19, 121, 124

   Mao and, 29, 110, 117

   material interests and, 96, 299, 328–29

   norms of cooperation and reciprocity and, 8, 9, 43, 98–100, 101–02, 103–04, 105–06, 261–62

   of opportunists, 103–05, 106–07, 114, 239, 328

   in practice, 107–25

   resistance and, 2, 19

   resources and, 7–9, 10, 21–22, 24, 51, 103–04, 107, 117, 204–05

   screening for, 104, 107, 114, 117–21, 124–26

   signaling in, 103

   social and political ties and, 10

   strategies for, 7–11, 22–23, 45, 48, 96–126, 263, 340

   theory of, 103–07

recruits

   age and education of, in Mozambique, 114–15

   age and education of, in Sendero Nacional, 119, 120

   educated v. uneducated, in Uganda, 142

   execution of, 142–43, 147

   low- v. high-commitment, 8–9, 102, 103–05, 107, 138–40

   reputations of, 104–05

   trust between leaders and, 101

   value of, 100, 142

Red Cross, 186

reeducation camps, 56, 72, 74–75, 111–12

refugees, 283, 284, 309–11

Regan, Patrick, 307, 330

Regional Committee of Alto Huallaga. See Sendero Luminoso–Huallaga

regression analysis, 307–09

régulos (traditional leaders), 78, 181–85, 194, 235–37

religions. See also specific religions

   fundamentalist, 21, 316

   in Lebanon, 322–25

   NRA and, 108

   social endowments and, 7, 9

Renamo

   abductions by, 113–15, 145–47, 183, 230

   affiliation of victims and, 215, 216, 252

   brutality in, 229–39

   cabos de terra and chefes de povacão and, 182, 183

   in Caiaia, 238

   in Canxixe, 235–36

   centralization and distrust in, 145–49

   centralization in, 127, 145–49, 230

   chronology of, 77

   coercion and, 113–16, 236–37

   comparisons with other groups, 55–58, 61, 80–81, 88, 95, 125–26, 145, 149, 181, 184, 196–97, 232, 258–59, 299–301

   control and, 127, 145–49

   Dhlakama and, 76, 79, 111, 145, 148, 274

   education/training in, 145–47

   Estado Major General of, 145, 148

   ethnic and regional makeup in, 112, 113

   ethnic groups in, 112, 113

   external patronage and, 14, 71–81

   Flowers, Ken and, 76

   food resources for, 184–85

   Frelimo and, 78, 80, 111–13, 181–82, 185–86, 229–30, 232, 235–39, 270–71, 272, 331–32

   funding for, 116, 271–72

   in Gorongosa, 112, 145, 230, 236, 272

   governance and, 164, 181–86

   history of, 71–81

   in Iapala, 238

   indiscipline and, 55, 127, 145–49, 236

   in Marínguè, 3–4, 113, 145, 230, 235–36, 237

   mudjibas and, 183–84, 185–86, 236

   National Council of, 112

   National Political Congress for, 184

   in Nfudzu, 236

   NRA compared to, 80–81, 145, 149, 181, 184, 232

   peace talks between Frelimo and, 80, 186, 232, 272, 356

   political commissars in, 146, 150, 184

   Portugal and, 57, 72, 96, 111

   public goods from, 186

   radio broadcasts for, 72

   recruitment and, 96, 111–16

   régulos and, 78, 181–85, 194, 235–37

   resilience of, 270–74

   resistance, repression and, 270–74

   resources and, 57–58, 331–32

   Rhodesia and, 57, 72, 111–12, 232, 331

   in Ribáuè District, Nampula Province, No. Mozambique, 237–39

   in Sofala province, 73, 79, 235–37

   South Africa and, 57, 75–79, 112, 146–47, 149, 270–71, 272

   traditional authorities and, 164, 181–86

   victim group size and, 214, 232

   violence by, 13–14, 55, 79, 80–81, 211, 212–15, 229–36, 239

   voluntarism to violence in, 111–16

   zone types for, 232

Reno, William, 334

repression, 27

   closed government and, 186–87

   resistance and, 270–74, 296, 309

reputations

   governance and, 168

   naming and shaming impact on, 345

   of recruits, 104–05

   for violence, 205

research design

   data and, 53–60

   dependent and independent variables in, 53–54

research method, 356–64. See also comparative method; data; ethnography; interviews

resilience, 260–96

   changing endowments and, 261–62

   counterinsurgency and, 261, 295

   expectations and, 11, 44–45

   failure/success and, 261, 262, 295

   of NRA, 265–70

   of Renamo, 270–74

   resistance and, 261

   of Sendero–Huallaga, 279–82

   of Sendero Nacional, 275–79

   shocks and, 260–62, 263, 265, 283

resistance

   coercion and, 198

   governance and, 44, 163, 192

   recruitment and, 2, 19

   repression and, 270–74, 296, 309

   resilience and, 261

   retribution and, 10–11

   rondas and, 250, 257–58, 275

   Sendero Nacional and, 275–79

   violence and, 44, 206–08, 217–19

resistance councils (RCs), 2, 69, 176–80, 196, 226, 266

Resistencia Nacional Moçambicana. See Renamo

resources. See food resources; specific resources

   bargains for, 339, 341–42

   barriers to organization and, 329–30

   classification of, 47

   comparative method with, 53–54

   contraband, 306–07, 308, 311

   credibility and, 44

   CRH’s control of, 91–93, 95

   curse of, 328–39

   extraction of, 6, 7, 10, 18, 23, 30, 38, 44, 47, 48, 164, 169–70, 173, 174–75, 192–93

   governance and, 163, 164, 169–70, 173, 190–91, 195–97

   in guerilla warfare, 29

   initial conditions, strategies and, 20–22, 23, 101–02, 125, 327–28

   insurgent competition and, 330–31

   lootability of, 48, 330–31

   mobilization of, 46–50

   natural, 7, 16, 47, 48, 173, 338

   NRA, Renamo, Sendero and, 55–58, 95

   obstructable, 48

   recruitment and, 7–9, 10, 21–22, 24, 51, 103–04, 107, 117, 204–05

   states and, 13, 341–42, 350

   strategies and, 20–22, 23, 54, 339

   structures and, 23

   violence and, 7, 11–13, 15–16, 20–22, 23, 306–07, 310, 311–26

responsables (authorities), 240–41, 243

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia. See FARC

Revolutionary United Front (RUF), 301–05, 332–34, 340

   manifesto for, 32–33

revolutions, civil wars v., 35

Rhodesia

   Renamo and, 57, 72, 111–12, 232, 331

   Renamo, Portugal and, 57, 72, 96, 111

   Renamo, South Africa, 57, 75–79, 112, 146–47

   Zimbabwe and, 76

Ribáuè District, Nampula Province, Mozambique, 237–39

Roldán, Mary, 320

Rommel, 152

rondas campesinas (self-defense committees), 250, 257–58, 275

Ross, Michael, 329–30

RUF. See Revolutionary United Front

Russia, 5

Rwanda

   Congo and, 335–37

   ethnic genocides in, 6

   International Criminal Tribunals for, 348

   Kagame and, 228

Sánchez, Gonzalo, 321

sanctions

   defection and, 43

   in Sendero Nacional, 152–53

   as source of leverage, 346–48

   by United Nations, 286–87, 294, 346

Sankoh, Foday, 303, 304

Savimbi, Jonas, 284–87, 293–95, 346

Schmitter, Philippe, 165

Sebirumbi, Hajji Musa, 219–20

secessionist movements/wars, 17, 309

security

   governance and, 163, 168, 175, 180

   states and, 36–38, 168

self-interest, pursuit of, 41–43, 48, 98

Selznick, Philip, 39

Semuto, the Luwero Triangle, Uganda, 222–26

Sena, in Mozambique, 36

Sendero Luminoso–Huallaga, 14

   affiliation of victims and, 215, 216, 252, 254

   authoritarianism in, 164, 192–95

   autonomy and, 155–58

   changing local economy and, 279–82

   chronology of, 92

   cocaleros and, 122–25, 256

   codes and rules for, 156–58

   Colombia and, 91, 92, 94, 193, 279–80, 281

   comparisons with other groups, 55–58, 61, 88, 95, 125–26, 196–97, 258–59, 299–301

   control and, 127, 155–58, 251–58

   corruption in, 55, 157, 194–95

   drugs and, 14, 36, 55, 58, 89–95, 96, 122–25, 155–58, 192–95, 251–58, 279–82, 291–92

   governance and, 164, 173–74, 192–95

   history of, 89–95

   ideology of, 156–58, 196–97

   inclusion in, 192–95

   indiscipline in, 14

   mandos for, 256

   opportunism and, 156–58, 281–83

   recruitment and, 96, 122–25

   resilience of, 279–82

   resources and, 58, 91–93, 95

   structure of, 251

   in Tingo María, 89, 90, 122–23, 124, 252–58

   victims of violence by, 218

   violence against civilians and, 252, 253

   violence by, 55, 89, 94–95, 212–13, 215–17, 251–58

Sendero Luminoso Nacional, 13–14, 340, 356

   affiliation of victims and, 215, 216, 252

   age and education of, 119, 120

   as alternative to elite democracy, 186–92

   attack on Chuschi and, 81, 116

   in Ayacucho, 57–58, 81–83, 87, 89, 117, 120, 125, 150, 156, 187–88, 217, 243–51, 276

   base forces for, 240–41

   Central Committee of, 85, 88, 89, 90, 93, 118, 124–25, 150–55, 157, 191, 247, 251

   César and prison break in, 153–54

   chronology of, 86

   codes and rules for, 152–55, 375

   comparisons with other groups, 55–58, 61, 88, 95, 125–26, 196–97, 258–59, 299–301

   control and, 127, 149–55

   decentralization and, 84, 85, 89, 90, 149–55

   discipline of, 88

   education/indoctrination by, 32, 85, 96, 118–21, 150–55

   elections and, 186–87

   facing down the government, 275–79

   governance and, 163–64, 186–92

   guiding line in, 149–55

   history of, 81–89

   ideologies of, 14, 55, 58, 84–85, 88, 90, 91, 94–95, 96, 116–21, 150–55, 156–58, 196–97

   as leftist group, 186–87

   levels of membership in, 119

   mandos for, 192, 193, 240–41, 247, 249–50

   Mao and, 57, 81, 84, 87, 156

   national conference for, 152, 375

   norms of behavior for, 152, 375

   as offshoot of Peruvian Communist Party, 57

   open people’s committees and, 188–92, 240

   patterns of restraint and excess in, 239–51

   principal/regional forces for, 240–41, 246–47

   recruitment and, 96, 116–21, 278

   regional committees of, 84, 85, 89, 90, 188–92

   resilience of, 275–79

   resistance and, 275–79

   resources and, 57–58, 190–91, 249

   responsables for, 240–41, 243

   sanctions in, 152–53

   structure of, 239–40

   trials and, 247–48

   victim group size by year/region and, 243, 244–45

   violence by, 85, 88, 212, 213–15, 217, 239–51, 317–18

   vouching and, 118, 124

   in Zonas Altas, Huanta Province, Ayacucho, 248–51

   in Zonas Bajas, Huanta Province, Ayacucho, 243–48

shared beliefs, 7, 48–49, 136–40, 170–71

Shining Path. See Sendero Luminoso

shirking, 129–31

shocks

   expectations and, 261–62, 295–96

   organizations’ responses to, 262–63, 265, 283, 295–96

   resilience and, 260–62, 263, 265, 283

   UNITA, FARC and, 292–95

Sierra Leone. See also Revolutionary United Front

   death/violence in, 5

   resources and recruitment in, 24, 311

   Special Court of, 304, 348–49

signaling

   information asymmetries and, 103, 208–09

   in recruitment, 103

   terrorism and, 208–41

Singo, Uganda, 265–67

size

   of massacres, 213–15, 243

   of organizations, 128–29

size of victim groups

   NRA and, 222, 223

   Renamo and, 214, 232

   violence and, 213–15

   by year/region, Sendero Luminoso Nacional and, 243, 244–45

Skocpol, Theda, 46, 98

Smith, Ian, 75

social change, resistance to, 8

social cleansing, violence as, 247, 251

social discontent, economic change and, 34–36

social endowments, 9, 14, 22

   barriers to organization and, 24, 48–49

   economic endowments v., 47–52, 101–02, 103–04, 210–11, 299–300

   ethnic groups and, 7, 9

   as fixed and exogenous, 50

   force and, 260

   ideologies and, 7, 9, 49, 51–52

   networks, norms of cooperation and reciprocity and, 48–49, 101–02, 105–06, 299–300

   organization, governance and, 164, 170–71

   religions and, 7, 9

   shared beliefs, norms, expectations and, 7, 48–49, 136–40, 170–71

social mobilization, 33, 51, 327–28, 329

   coercion v., 295–96

   in Congo, 339

   social control v., 88

social movements, 20

   political opportunities, collective action and, 45–46, 55–56

   states v., 22, 28, 34–38

socialism

   Frelimo and, 3, 61, 73, 75, 78–79, 80, 181, 229–30

   Gaitán and, 319

Socialist Club, 332

Sofala province, Mozambique, 73, 79, 235–37

solidarity, collective action and, 48–49

Somalia, 311

South Africa

   Angola, diamonds and, 284, 285–87, 293–94

   apartheid in, 79, 272, 286

   Portugal and, 57

   Renamo and, 57, 75–79, 112, 146–47, 149, 270–71, 272

   Rhodesia and, 57, 75–79, 112, 146–47

South America, 11

Southeast Asia, 20

Soviet Union

   Angola and, 285–86, 293

   collapse of, 80

   Frelimo support by, 74

   Lithuania and, 99, 352–53

   mass killings in, 6

   and U.S. during Cold War, 61, 75, 285–86, 342–43

Stalin, Joseph, 85

state-building, 38, 327, 328, 340–41, 350

   social services, opportunists and, 325

states

   anarchy in, 36–37

   asymmetric conflict between insurgency and, 325

   collective goods from, 37–38, 97–100

   control of, 27, 53–95

   counterinsurgency and, 6, 37, 87–89

   genocides by governments and, 6, 16, 211

   killings by, 6, 16, 211, 306

   power of, 309, 322

   as provider of public goods, 61, 342

   resources and, 13, 341–42, 350

   security and, 36–38, 168

   social movements v., 22, 28, 34–38

   strength/weakness of, 14–15, 35, 55, 56, 330, 341

   violence by, 5–6, 18

stationary bandits, 169

   roving v., 169

Stevens, Siaka, 332–33

strategies

   constraints on, 45–50

   for control, 135–40

   initial conditions, resources and, 20–22, 23, 101–02, 125, 327–28

   as problem of institutional choice, 27–28, 38–39

   for recruitment, 7–11, 22–23, 45, 48, 96–126, 263, 340

   resources and, 20–22, 23, 54, 339

   violence and, 201–02

structure(s)

   agency and, 20–22, 327

   of database on civil war violence, 367

   of governance, 5, 6, 23, 44

   membership, violence and, 198, 204–08, 210–11, 217–19, 259, 340

   of organization, 6–7, 20–23, 217–19

   resources and, 23

Sudan, 32

survey research, 353–54

sympathizers, 97

   militants v., 99

Syria, invasion of Lebanon by, 323

Taliban, 343

tangible and intangible assets, 47

Tanzania

   Kabila and, 336

   NRA and, 62, 67–68, 108–11

   UNLF and, 64, 67–68

taxation, 7, 47

   agriculture and, 67, 190–91

   drugs and, 92–93, 124, 156, 192–95, 255–56, 291–92

   governance and, 164, 176, 192–95

   in Uganda, 67, 176, 268–69

Taylor, Charles

   Liberia, RUF and, 303, 333–34

   NPFL and, 334–35

Taylor, Michael, 45

team production function, 129–30

Ten-Point Programme, NRA and, 70, 177

territorial control, 17, 20, 56

   contestation and, 11–13, 37–38

   governance and, 163, 164, 169, 195

terrorism, 17. See also counterterrorism

   global campaign against, 342–43

   Guevara on violence and, 30–31

   by Guzmán, 87

   in Peru, 94

   signaling and, 208–41

thick description, 54

Thoumi, Francisco, 290

Tilly, Charles, 28, 31

Tingo María, Alto Huallaga, Peru, 89, 90, 122–23, 124, 252–58

trials

   for indiscipline, 145

   Sendero–Huallaga and, 255

   Sendero Nacional and, 247–48

   tribunals and, 348–49

trust, 296

   in governance, 134, 167–69

   during interviews, 357, 364

   between rebel leaders and recruits, 101

Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Peru, 44, 88, 212, 213–17, 241–43, 359

Tunisia, 313, 314

Uganda, 341. See also National Resistance Army; specific cities/regions

   Alur group in, 219–20, 222–24

   Baganda tribe in, 36, 55–56, 63–64, 65–66, 109, 110, 142, 176–80, 222, 226–28

   Banyankole in, 36, 55–56, 57, 67, 68, 108–11, 142

   British colonialism in, 55–56, 65, 176

   Buganda region in, 63–64, 65–66, 110

   bush war in, 108

   Congo and, 335–37

   corruption in, 56

   economy in, 56, 64, 65–67

   ethnic groups in, 1, 36, 55–56, 57, 61, 65–67, 142, 219–26

   interviews in, 357, 358–64

   Kikoosi Maluum in, 64, 67–69

   killings and raping by soldiers in, 1–2

   Lukumbi Village in, 1–2

   Mutesa in, 63–64

   Muwanga in, 62–63

   Obote in, 13, 61, 62–64, 66, 71, 109, 110, 125, 265–69

   political transition in, 56

   RCs in, 2, 69

   rebellions in, 32

   taxation in, 67, 176, 268–69

   violence against civilians in, 220–22

   violence in, 1–2, 13–14, 15, 202, 220

Uganda Freedom Movement, 70, 227–28, 229

Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA)

   Alur aid to, 219

   attack on Kabamba Training Wing of, 62, 69, 71

   defeat of, 71

   NRA v., 62, 69, 70, 71, 180, 219, 222–27, 282

   Obote, Grand Offensive and, 70, 265–69

Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF)

   Obote and, 64–65, 66, 67–69

   Tanzania and, 64, 67–68

Uganda National Rescue Front, 70

Uganda Patriotic Movement, 63, 108

Uganda People’s Congress (UPC), 222–24

   Kabaka Yekka alliance with, 63–64

   Obote and, 62–64, 66, 108, 219–20, 226–27

   Youth Wing of, 177, 219–20

Uganda Resistance News, 175

Ugandan People’s Defence Force, 143

UHV. See Sendero Luminoso– Huallaga; Upper Huallaga Valley

union mobilization, 42

UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), 283–87, 292–95, 346

United Liberation Movement for Democracy, 334, 335

United Nations

   High Commissioner for Refugees, 309

   investments in Peru by, 281

   Mozambique and, 75

   Mutesa’s appeal to, 64

   sanctions by, 286–87, 294, 346

   on Sierra Leone Special Court, 349

United States (U.S.)

   in Afghanistan, 342–43

   Alien Torts Claim Act in, 348

   Angola and, 285–86, 294

   Colombia and, 287, 288

   Liberia and, 335

   Peru and, 94, 256, 279–80, 282

   and Soviet Union during Cold War, 61, 75, 285–86, 342–43

   State Department, data from, 309–11

   Taylor, Charles, escape from prison in, 334

Universidad Nacional de San Cristobal de Huamanga, 116–17

University of Dar es Salaam, 31

UNLA. See Uganda National Liberation Army

UNLF. See Uganda National Liberation Front

UNLF Anti-Dictatorship, 70

UPC. See Uganda People’s Congress

Upper Huallaga Valley, 89, 90, 122–23, 124, 252–58. See also Sendero Luminoso–Huallaga

Uribe Ramón, Garciela, 292

Varshney, Ashutosh, 202

Velasco Alvarado, Juan, 81, 83

Vietnam, 98, 306, 352

violations, coding of, 367

violence, 198–59. See also specific countries

   by activists, 198, 204–08, 229

   affiliation of victims and, 215, 216, 252, 367

   bargains and, 208–09

   character and intensity/level of, 6, 10–11, 18–19, 23, 24, 27, 59, 198–02, 210–19, 305–10, 311, 317–18, 370

   within civil war, 16, 217–58

   civil wars, organization and, 16–20, 199

   civilians and, 16, 24, 199–200

   against civilians, Sendero–Huallaga and, 252, 253

   coercion and, 198, 199, 202

   consequences of, 198

   data on, 59, 202, 258, 366–67

   defection and, 198, 209–10, 224–25, 227, 228–29, 299–300, 317–18

   definitions of, 6, 198, 199–02

   duration of war and, 308, 311, 326

   expectations and, 205–08, 217–19

   external patronage and, 209

   Geneva Conventions on, 200, 201

   industrial organization of, 27–60

   lingering effects of, 5

   measuring, 53, 202, 213–15, 305–11

   micropolitics of, 339

   mistakes/errors with, 198, 205–06, 225, 238

   nature of perpetrators of, 204, 205

   non-state actors’ role in, 16

   opportunists and, 199, 204–08, 217–19, 239, 276, 309, 326

   organization and, 16–20, 199, 203–08

   organizing, 39–50

   patterns of, 6–7, 18–19, 20, 198–202, 217–19, 300–01, 305–11

   practice of, across countries, 210–17

   as rational, 208

   resistance and, 44, 206–08, 217–19

   resources and, 7, 11–13, 15–16, 20–22, 23, 306–07, 310, 311–26

   responsibility for, against noncombatants, 211–12

   selective v. indiscriminate, 6–7, 10–11, 13–14, 18, 44, 45, 198, 203–04, 206–08, 209–10, 213–15, 217–19, 258–59, 299–301

   as social cleansing, 247, 251

   by states, 5–6, 18

   strategies and, 201–02

   structures, membership and, 198, 204–08, 210–11, 217–19, 259, 340

   targets/identification for, 210–11, 215, 217, 232, 252

   across time and regions/geographic space, 199, 202, 207–08, 209–10, 217–19, 232, 258–59, 260

   types of, against noncombatants, 212–13

   variations in, 14, 15

   victim group size and, 213–15

vipingamizi (enemy agents), 220

vouching, 105, 106–07, 263

   Sendero Nacional and, 118, 124

Voz da Africa Livre (Voice of a Free Africa), 72, 111–12

Vvumbula Armed Forces, 226–29

Weingast, Barry, 167–69

wilayat (military regions), Algeria, 313–15

Wilkinson, Steven, 202

Wilson, James Q., 127, 135–36

Wilson, Ken, 272

wives, taking, 3, 79, 184, 236

Wood, Elisabeth, 19

   on collective action, 45

   on El Salvador, 99–100, 352

World Bank

   on combat-related deaths, 306

   Frelimo agreement with, 80

   on resources, 342

Yankee imperialism, 84

Yugoslavia, 348

Zabron, execution of, 226

Zaire, 336

Zambia, 74, 270

   Angolan refugees in, 283, 284

Zimbabwe

   Africa National Union, 72

   Congo and, 336

   Kriger on, 353

   Rhodesia and, 76

Zonas Altas, Huanta Province, Ayacucho, Peru, 248–51

Zonas Bajas, Huanta Province, Ayacucho, Peru, 243–48