Rightful Resistance in Rural China

Index

Abel, Richard, 16

Administrative Litigation Law

   appeals and lawsuits, 64

   and boundary-spanning claims, 62

   and local people’s congresses, 13

   as tool for rightful resistance, 30

affirmative action (U.S.), 19

agency, 89, 107

   and decisions to protest, 26

   of practitioners of consentful contention, 17

   principle-agent problem, 15, 29, 48, 51, 65, 126

   sense of among rightful resisters, 106

   and violations of the law, 31

Agriculture Law (1993), 40

   publicizing of, 82

   and refusal to pay illegal impositions, 82, 113

   as tool for rightful resisters, 70

Anhui province, 55

   activists against unlawful taxation in, 84

   direct rightful resistance in, 79

   dissatisfaction with higher levels of government in, 36

   interviews in, 141

   oversampling in, 140

   Party committee of, 34

   proposed Law of Peasant Associations, 108

   protests in, 124

   rightful resistance in, 79

   survey of township officials in, 140

   tax-for-fee reform in, 34

anthropology of the state, 65.

   See disaggregating the state

Bai Yihua, 14

Bernstein, Thomas P., 114

birth control

   acceptance of policy of, 14

   cadres enforce regulations of, 12

   completing task of, 54

   as priority of government, 102

   rightful resistance to, 8

   violating policy of, 12, 136

blame attribution, xv, 27

Blecher, Marc, xv

boundary-spanning claims, 60.

   See contained claims; transgressive claims

   China as hospitable to, 52

   demanding recall of unpopular cadres, 58

   disputes that have inspired, 53

   episodes that shed light on, 54

   example of in Norwegian prisons, 16

   implications beyond China, 66

   media unlikely to champion, 61

   new examples of, 62, 63

   payoffs of studying, 63, 64, 65

   pressure placed on rural cadres by, 61

Burstein, Paul, 113

Center, the, 6, 32, 36.

   See central policy

   ambivalence of, 33, 48, 49

   contradictory posture of, 31, 32

   disaggregating the state, 66

   doubts about, 45, 46, 81, 85, 90, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 126

   as elite ally, 7, 9, 29, 30, 32, 48, 113

   as fair-weather friend, 35

   as a guarantor against repression, 68, 103

   increased familiarity with, 39

   local-Center divide, 9, 15, 17, 25, 27, 28, 36, 41, 42, 45, 46, 100, 105, 109

   spirit of, 6

   trust in, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 90, 92, 103

   weakness of, 28

Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, 29, 53, 81, 100

   central policy. See Center, the

   Chinese meaning of, 5

   roots of rightful resistance lie in, 5

   scope of in China, 6

Chan, Anita, 45

Cheng Tongshun, 6

citizenship, 64, 119, 120, 121, 122, 128

   consequences of, 66

   definition of, 119, 120

   demanding, 122

   enlarging the scope of, 64, 120

   government accepting claims to, 65

   Hebei example of, 116, 117, 118

   language of present in China, 119

   local, 119

   practice of precedes appearance of full citizenship, 121

   promotes rights of, 9

   rights, 117, 118, 119, 121

   rise of, 120

   spread of practices, xiii

Civil Rights Act (U.S.), 19

claims radicalization, xiii

cognitive liberation, 21, 42, 109

collective action, xii, xiii, 5, 6, 11, 23, 43, 49, 51, 89, 98, 124.

   See contention; protests; rightful resistance; riots; violence

   attitude of state toward, 49

   audience of in rural China, 92

   to combat election abuses, 53

   as combination of structural and perceptual elements, 48

   to defend lawful rights and interests, 5

   to discipline local leaders, 101

   effects of, 95, 97, 103, 109, 112, 113

   in Hengyang, 88

   innovative means of, 50

   leaders of, 33

   participation in as life-altering event, 102

   policy-based resistance as a type of, xii

   rightful resisters engage in, 5

   risks posed to leaders of, 87

   role of perceptions in onset of, 26

   smothering of by grass-roots leaders, 12

   top officials suspicious of, 32

   use of concept of political opportunity to explore, 99

   in the United States, 18, 21

   Western studies of, 140

collective bargaining (U.S.), 21

communications and information technologies

   photocopying, 84

   spread of, 80, 91

   used in direct rightful resistance, 83

complainants’ representatives, 31, 73, 74, 75, 84, 108, 136, 141.

   See petitioners; protesters; rightful resisters

compliant villagers, xii

consentful contention, 2, 17, 18

Constitution (1982), 6

   article 111 on self-governance at village level, 32

   as a formally ratified central policy, 6

   not used to back up claims of rightful resisters, 60

   popular sovereignty and rule by law as constitutional principles, 126

   protecting citizens against state organs violating the law, 31

contained claims, 51, 63, 66.

   See boundary-spanning claims; transgressive claims

contention, 93.

   See collective action; mediated contention; rightful resistance; protests; riots; violence

   confrontational forms of, 77, 91

   consequences of, 95, 96, 99

   contained, 51, 63, 99

   dynamics of, 63, 95

   popular, 52, 64, 95, 96, 99, 141

   repertoires of, xiv, 10, 63, 67, 69, 76, 77

   rights-based, 10

   transgressive forms of, 21

contentious conversation, 4, 56, 62

contentious politics, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, 2, 48, 63, 65, 113

   critique of students of, 64

   impact of, 99

   indirect outcomes of, 97

   research implications of, 91

   studying causality in, 97

corruption, 42, 100, 141

   of cadres, 53

   government campaign against, 9, 45, 72, 113

   opposition to, 137

   protests against, 72, 116

   as spur to rightful resistance, xi, 6, 120

Cultural Revolution

   openings for popular action during, 30

   protest legacies of, 9, 135

   protest tactics during, 10

   worker-rebel defiance in Shanghai, 89

Dangshan county, Anhui province

   repression in, 35

   rightful resistance in, 79

   tax-for-fee reform in, 34

defeats, 21

   acceptance of as common response, 105

   as contributing to confrontation among protest leaders, 91, 105

   as contributing to protest leaders giving up, 80

   as contributing to tactical escalation, 80, 94

   increase as rightful resisters scale the official hierarchy, 90

   repeated failures as escalating to violence, 3

   when mediators do not act, 81

democracy, 51

   discussed by Chinese villagers, 12

   lack of in China, 108

   multiparty, 108

   people’s, 30, 128

   rightful resistance in democratic countries, 23

   socialist, 9, 13, 62

   Western theories of, 118

Deng Xiaoping, 6

Department of Labor (U.S.), 21

diaomin, xi, 55

dingzihu, xi

disaggregating the state, 51, 66.

   See anthropology of the state; state-society relations

East Germany

   consentful contention in, 17

   petition drives in, 2

   protesters in, 18

Einwohner, Rachel, 113

elections, 53, 55

   annulment of, 100

   appeals to Ministry of Civil Affairs related to, 54

   calls for direct village, 128

   as episodes of contention, 50

   free and fair, 60, 100

   misconduct related to, 6, 7, 12, 13, 28, 37, 39, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 66, 70, 71, 75, 100, 102, 107

   opposition to, 54

   organized boycotts of, 56

   popular election of national leaders, 126

   procedures of, 8, 30

   promotion of by central officials, 65

   provincial or national, 122

   rightful resistance surrounding, 57, 59

   and state’s hand in shaping opportunity structure, 112

   village, xi, 7, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 64, 65, 69, 86, 101, 111, 119, 128, 141

elite allies, xiv, 4, 5, 13, 42, 91, 93, 101, 102

   fleeting, 27

   reliance on, 16, 35, 85

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (U.S.), 21

Equal Pay Act of 1963 (U.S.), 19

everyday forms of resistance, xii, 1, 3, 4, 24

Faxi county, Shaanxi province, 14

Fengcheng county, Jiangxi province, 79

Four Cleanups, 30

Fujian province, 44, 53

   activists’ perceptions of the Center in, 45

   dissatisfaction with higher levels of government in, 36

   elections in, 53

   interviews in, 141

   oversampling in, 140

   protest leaders in, 90, 92

   rightful resistance in, 67, 82, 83, 127

   survey in, 89, 139, 140

   villager evaluation of performance of central leaders in, 44

gongmin, 118, 122.

   See citizenship

grain procurement, 54

Gramsci, Antonio, 3, 23, 128

Great Revolution, xiii

grievances, 14

   and central-local divide, 17, 90

   and cognitive liberation, 42

   and forging of collective identity, 78

   in industrialized counties, 96

   letters and visits offices as clearinghouse for, 14

   and local policy misimplementation, 41, 48

   and popular action, 6, 103

   of Uighurs in Xinjiang, 114

   of urban workers, 73

   role of journalists in communicating, 68

Guangdong province

   disenchantment with the Center in, 108

   dissatisfaction with higher levels of government in, 36

   elections in, 60

   interviews in, 141

   migrant workers in, 40

   repression in, 37

   survey of township officials in, 140

Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, 60

Gushi county, Henan province, 79

Hainan province, 60

Harbin, Heilongjiang province

   election misconduct in, 58

   rightful resistance in, 59

Hebei province, 52

   bypassing local officials in, 100

   citizenship in, 116

   citizenship incident in, 118, 128

   disenchantment with Beijing in, 104

   distrust of local cadres in, 43, 55

   government legal education campaign in, 40

   interviews in, 141

   misimplementation of policies in, 28

   proposed Law of Peasant Associations in, 108

   rightful resistance in, 39, 58, 79, 120, 127

   village elections in, xi

Hebi City, Henan province, 13

hefa quanyi, 5, 29, 52

Henan province

   ambiguous regulations in, 31

   collective complaints lodged in, 13

   disenchantment with the Center in, 108

   disseminating policies in, 71, 72

   election misconduct in, 70

   interviews in, 141

   oversampling in, 140

   protests in, 124

   repression in, 35, 80

   rightful resistance in, 6, 67, 79, 87

   riots in, 87

Hengyang county, Hunan province

   direct action in, 69

   interviews in, xiii, 141

   overtaxation in, 41, 42

   protest leaders in, 72

   protest leaders’ use of media in, 39

   rightful resistance in, 67, 70, 75, 79, 87, 118

   support for rightful resistance by officials and intellectuals in, 40

Herbst, Jeffrey, 2

Hollander, Jocelyn, 113

hongtou wenjian, 30. See red-headed documents

Hu Jintao

   on letters and visits, 125

   a protest leader’s view of, 43

   on rural tax reforms, 29

Hubei province

   protests in, 124

   rightful resistance regarding village elections in, 57, 75

   village elections in, xi

Hunan province

   activists’ perceptions of the Center in, 36, 45, 47

   collective complaint to provincial government in, 71

   consequences of rightful resistance in, 106

   direct rightful resistance in, 79

   framing of claims in, 122, 126

   government legal education campaign in, 40

   as hotbed of popular contention, 141

   interviews in, xiii, 141

   limiting exactions in, 82

   local repression in, 35, 37

   mediated contention in, 82

   migrant workers in, 40

   mobile phones as tool of rightful resistance in, 84

   overtaxation in, 41

   peasant activism in the 1920s in, 111

   peasant burdens in, 70, 74

   petitioners in, 46, 92

   photocopying as tool of rightful resistance in, 84

   popular support for rightful resistance in, 40, 111

   professional complainants in, 105

   protest leaders in, xiii, 45, 71

   protest leaders’ use of media in, 39

   protests in, 72, 78, 107, 124, 127

   rightful resistance in, 67, 79, 89, 118

   riots in, 30, 74, 110

   siege in, 110

   survey of township officials in, 140

   village defense of protest organizers in, 83

   village election misconduct in, 56

implementation. See misimplementation

   of birth limits, 37

   of policies, xiii, 15, 60, 65, 68, 81, 95, 96, 99, 101, 112, 122, 123, 125, 126

information

   blockades of, 73

   about government policies, 38, 80

   incomplete, 47

   interpreting, 27, 41

   misperceptions of, 47

   on official misconduct, 29, 83

   officials providing rightful resisters with, 30, 93

   policy, 39

   role of in perceptions of opportunity, 27

   slippage between policy makers and street-level officials, 28

   sources of, 11, 40, 65

   villager access to, 38

institutional reform, xiii, 116, 124

interest group politics, 50

Jiang Zemin, 29, 70

Jiangsu province

   interviews in, 141

   survey in, 89, 139

Jiangxi province, 42

   direct rightful resistance in, 79

   intellectuals’ support of rightful resistance in, 76

   interviews in, 141

   protest organizers in, 72

   protests in, 100, 107, 124

   rightful resistance in, 79

   riots in, 30

   survey in, 89, 139

   village compacts in history in, 8

Jize county, Hebei province, 83

Klandermans, Bert, 27

land

   allocation of, 54

   appropriation of, 28, 32, 37, 83, 102

   appropriation of in Latin America, 2

   reform, 135

   speculation in, 59

   use of, 6, 8, 53

law

   rule by, 13, 30, 62, 126

   rule of, 4, 16, 18

Law of Peasant Associations, proposed

   villagers’ drafts of, 108

lawful rights and interests, 11, 29

   Central policies for defending villagers’, 28, 29, 45

   claims based on, 5

leadership, in government, 5, 12, 29, 30, 32, 58, 59, 60, 62, 88, 101, 106, 107, 128

letters and visits, 62, 124

   offices, 14, 29, 31, 78, 81, 82, 104, 125, 135

   petition to overhaul system of, 92

   Regulations (1995), 31, 35, 63

   Regulations (2005), 92, 125

Lianyuan county, Hunan province, 67, 79, 89

Liaoning province

   dissatisfaction with higher levels of government in, 36

   interviews in, 141

   oversampling in, 140

   rightful resistance in, 57

   survey of township officials in, 140

Lipsky, Michael, 112

local policies

   harmful, 100

   protests against, 69, 109

lodging complaints, 31, 32, 35, 77, 78, 80, 92, 104, 105, 107, 141.

    See shangfang

Lü, Xiaobo, 114

Mao Zedong

   his campaigns against corrupt grass-roots cadres, 10

   impressed with peasant activism in Hunan, 111

   protest leaders influenced by, 137

mass mobilization, 72

Mathiesen, Thomas, 16

McAdam, Doug, 27, 50, 51, 64, 91

McCann, Michael, 18, 19, 22, 23

McCarthy, John, 27

media

   as elite ally, 13, 29, 46, 58, 61, 62, 101

   penetration of into the countryside, 11

   response to rightful resistance, 98

   use by rightful resisters, 39, 108, 128

   in the West, 77

mediated contention. See contention; rightful resistance

   as contributing to tactical escalation, 80

   definition of, 69

   disenchantment with, 89

   failure of to produce redress, 81, 83, 86, 89

   as opposed to direct action, 76, 91

   participants in, 82

   used to obtain “red-headed documents,” 82

migrant workers

   enhanced policy awareness of, 40

   not treated as full citizens, 119

   protest leaders who become, 88, 108, 135, 136

   as spreaders of news about popular action, 78

Ministry of Agriculture, 82

Ministry of Civil Affairs

   appeals and letters to, 54

   on center-local divide, 28

   involvement with elections, 101

   as protesters’ ally, 13, 58, 100

Minzner, Carl, 135

misimplementation. See implementation

   of central policies, 28, 41, 45, 47, 60, 90, 99, 100, 109

   of judicial decisions in South Africa, 16

misperceptions, 47. See opportunities, perceptions of

Montgomery bus boycott (U.S.), 51

moral economy

   claims, 23

   protests as distinguished from rightful resistance, xii

nail-like individuals, xi.

   See recalcitrants

National People’s Congress

   appeals to, 81, 92

   decisions by, 57

   Peng Zhen’s speech to, 14

   protesters’ access to blocked, 81

   as protesters’ ally, 59

Ningxiang county, Hunan province

   popular support for rightful resistance in, 111

   protests in, 72

   rightful resistance in, 67, 79

nongmin fudan, 6, 29, 70

nongnu, 122. See slaves

Norway, 16

object shift, xv, 91

openings. See opportunities

opportunities, xv

   affected by state fragmentation, 28

   definition of opportunity structure, 49

   different from improved opportunities, 49

   expanding, 43, 93, 128

   for expression, 50

   Herbst, Jeffrey on, 2

   perceptions of, xv, 26, 27, 38, 43, 48

   political, xiv, xv, 20, 25, 27, 48, 93

   for popular classes, 52, 66

   rightful resistance as a product of, 4

   seizure of, 94

   shifting, 48, 98

   in South Africa, 43

   state provision of, 64, 113

   structural, xv, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 31, 47, 48, 49, 66, 93, 94, 112, 114

   students of movement origins on, 25

   as subject to attribution, 26

   unpacking to understand rightful resistance, 38

Organic Law of Villagers’ Committees (1987, revised 1998), 7, 60

   1998 revision of, 53, 59, 62

   claims based on, 13, 39, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 70

   enforcement of, 101

   provisions of, 30, 32, 40, 54

Party Congress, Sixteenth, 124

Party Discipline Inspection Commission, 13, 81

pay equity campaign (U.S.), 19, 20, 21, 22, 123

peasant burdens, 36, 87, 118, 136, 140

   efforts to limit, 29, 40, 45, 46, 70, 72, 74, 124

   increase of, 29

   Sichuan’s Regulations Concerning Farmers’ Burdens, 39

perceptions. See opportunities, perceptions of

petitioners, 58.

   See complainants’ representatives; protest leaders; rightful resisters

   in Chinese history, 9

   and contention within the system, 77

   groups of, 69, 73, 78, 106, 127

   increase in number of, 124

   to letters and visits offices, 135

   radicalize tactics, 67

   regulation supporting, 125

   restrictions on, 125

   skipping levels, 32, 46, 105

   supporters of, 13, 93

   threat of violence by, 92

   use of Organic Law by, 39, 55, 57

policy innovations, inspired by rightful resistance, xiii, 116, 123

policy-based resistance, xii.

   See rightful resistance

political change, 62

   impact of pay equity campaign in the U.S. on, 22

   impact of rightful resistance on, xiii, 103, 116, 123

political opportunity. See opportunities

political participation, xii, 18, 99

principle-agent problem. See agency

protest leaders, xi, 111.

   See complainants’ representatives; petitioners; rightful resisters

   allies of, 13

   characteristics of, 14, 38, 47, 89

   in Chinese history, 10

   defamation of, 33

   in Hengyang county, 71, 82, 88

   in Hunan province, xiii

   in Jiangxi province, 72

   in Ningxiang county, Hunan province, 72

   risks run by, 87, 109

   trust in the Center, 45

   use of technology, 83

   use of the media, 84

   villagers’ support of, 83, 115

protests, xii.

   See collective action; contention; rightful resistance; violence

   antitax demonstration, xi

   in Henan province, 108

   impact of difficult to gauge, 95

   in Jiangxi province, 100

   opportunities for, xiii, 27

   outcomes of, 97, 98, 102, 112, 113

   pleasures of, 107

   regional variation in outcomes, 114

   techniques of, 76

   by veterans of the People’s Liberation Army, 88

Qidong county, Hunan province

   protests in, 74, 78

   rightful resistance in, 67, 79

   riots in, 74

radical flank effects, xv, 77, 86

radicalization

   of claims, xiii

   of tactics, 67

reasonable radicalism, 2

rebellion. See revolution; violence

   as contrasted with rightful resistance, xii, 12

   in Maoist era China, 30

   prevention of, 54

recalcitrants, xii. See nail-like individuals

red-headed documents

   inaccessible to the public, 30

   obtained through mediated contention, 82

reformist activism, 2

regional variation, xiii, 107

Renshou county, Sichuan province

   rightful resistance in, 124

   violence and rioting in, 100

repression, 26, 48, 87.

   See violence

   guarantor against, 68, 83, 103

   rightful resistance leading to, 3, 61, 73, 106, 114, 123

   saps confidence of protesters, 103

   of villagers, 12, 33, 62

revolution. See rebellion; violence

   compared with other episodes of contention, 50

   as contrasted with rightful resistance, xii

   as engine for change, 129

   overseas support for a democratic, 108

   proponents of, 9

Revolution of 1911, xiii

rightful resistance, xii, 18.

   See collective action; contention; lodging complaints; petitioners; protests; protest leaders; rightful resisters

   attitudinal factors that facilitate, 38

   and citizenship rights, 120

   consequences of, 95, 100, 101, 103, 114

   definition of, 1, 2, 14, 22, 49

   direct action as a form of, 68, 78, 83, 86

   in East Germany, 17

   evolution of, 68, 93

   how it emerges, 4, 5, 25, 26

   implications for China, 116

   in Norway, 16

   object shift of, 91

   Party leaders’ tolerance of, 32

   produces concessions through nonviolent coercion, 61

   recent upsurge in, 11

   relationship to other types of contention, 1, 3, 4

   rights talk underlying it, 6

   as a tame form of contention, 68

   in the United States, 18

rightful resisters, 3. See complainants’ representatives; petitioners; protest leaders; rightful resistance

   as subalterns, 128

   characteristics of, 3, 4, 38, 57, 70, 90

   disillusionment of, 125

   drawn into conventional politics, 108

   financing of, 109

   goals of, 60

   and mediated tactics, 80

   motivations for acting of, 23

   as between subjects and citizens, 122

   support from the public, 92

   violence against, 87

   in the United States, 23

rights. See lawful rights and interests; rights consciousness

   Chinese villagers struggling to defend, xii

   fuzzy, 56

   guaranteed but not enforced, 38, 64, 119

   programmatic, 64

   respect of villagers’, 8

   talk, 6, 19, 117, 118, 120, 127, 128

rights consciousness, 56

   growing in the Chinese countryside, 4, 7, 21, 127

   of protesters, 119

riots, 110

   as engine for change, 129

   fabricated by township leaders, 87

   in Hunan and Sichuan since the 1990s, 110

   in Qidong county, Hunan in 1996, 74

school fees

   declining, 73

   increase in as grounds for rightful resistance, 73, 104, 107, 110

Scott, James, xii, 2, 128

Shaanxi province, 14

   rightful resistance in, 79

Shandong province

   activist from, 43, 45, 90

   activists’ perceptions of the Center in, 36, 45

   collective incidents in, 53

   corruption in, 86

   interviews in, 141

   local repression in, 36

   survey of township officials in, 140

   village elections in, xi

shangfang, 37, 78, 105, 108, 136.

   See lodging complaints; petitioners; rightful resisters

shangfang daibiao, 108. See complainants’ representatives

Shanxi province

   demonstrations in, 11

   interviews in, 141

Sheqi county, Henan province, 6

shrewd and unruly people, xi. See diaomin

Sichuan province

   direct rightful resistance in, 79

   election misconduct in, 39

   interviews in, 141

   local repression in, 37

   petitioners in, 92

   protests in, 100, 101, 107, 124

   rightful resistance in, 124, 127

   riots in, 30, 110

slaves, 108, 116, 118, 122

social movements

   compared with other episodes of contention, 50

   as distinct from rightful resistance, xii

   study of effects of, 95

South Africa, law-based resistance in, 16

state building, 4

State Council, 28

   Letters and Visits Office, 31, 104

   Letters and Visits Regulations, 31, 125

   regulation on township and village fees, 71

   regulations of, 5, 6, 11, 31, 39, 82, 100

   supporting peasants’ welfare, 44

state-society relations

   changes in, 114, 123

   impact of rightful resistance on, 116, 124.

   See disaggregating the state

strategic dilemma, xv, 85, 92

Straughn, Jeremy, 17, 23

structural opportunities. See opportunities

Suiping county, Henan province, 70

tactical escalation, xiii, 67, 69, 77, 80, 85, 86, 88, 91, 93, 94

tactical innovation, xv, 68, 69, 93, 94

tactics, direct, 69, 78, 79, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 91, 98, 101, 102, 106, 125, 126

Taoyuan county, Hunan province, 79

Tarrow, Sidney, 50, 51, 64, 91, 112

taxation, 141

   acceptance of, 14

   corruption related to, 37, 40, 84

   efforts to reduce, 40, 71, 72, 82, 124

   as source of protest, 105, 108

   tax-for-fee reform, 34, 104, 124

Thompson, E. P., xii, 23

Tianjin city

   interviews in, 141

Tilly, Charles, xiii, 50, 51, 56, 64, 91

transgressive claims, 51, 54, 57, 60, 61, 63, 77, 129, 141.

   See boundary-spanning claims; contained claims

   compared with boundary-spanning claims, 49

   compared with contained claims, 50, 51, 52, 62, 64, 66

   compared with rightful resistance, 60

   example of related to elections, 58

   growing out of contained contention, 51

trust, 46.

   See blame attribution; Center, the

   distrust of local leaders, 43

   increase of among activists, 85

   nationalization of, 126

   patterns of, 42

   in South Africa, 43

   surveys on, 27

venue shopping, xv, 60, 81

veterans of the People’s Liberation Army, 88, 136

   as protest leaders, 89

violence. See collective action; contention; rebellion; revolution; riots

   calls for from officials, 37

   distinguished from rightful resistance, 3, 4, 38, 115

   in Renshou county, Sichuan province, 100

   increases in, 76, 77, 88

   rightful resisters decrying use of, 69, 91, 102

   against rightful resisters, 86

   after unsuccessful rightful resistance, 3, 125, 126

war of position, 3

weapons of the weak, 4, 18

Wen Jiabao

   on need to preserve farmland, 37

   on the reduction of peasant burdens, 124

   on rural tax reforms, 29

Xiangyin county, Hunan province, 79

Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, 114

Xinyang county, Henan province

   disseminating policies in, 72

   rightful resistance in, 67

   riots in, 87

Yiyang county, Henan province, 87

Yizhang county, Hunan province

   rightful resistance in, 79

   siege in, 110

Yu Jianrong, xiii, 135, 141

Yunnan province

   elections in, 60

   interviews in, 141

Zald, Mayer, 27

Zhang Yinghong, 126

Zhangpu county, Fujian province, 67

Zhao Shukai, 135

Zhejiang province

   impeachment effort in, 59

   survey in, 140

   villager evaluation of central leaders in, 44

Zhu Rongji, 29, 108