Neurolinguistics

	List of figures	page xv
	List of tables	xvii
	Preface and acknowledgements	xix
	Note on the text	xxi
part I	Foundational concepts and issues
1	Introduction and overview	3
	Introduction	3
	Co-evolution of language and the brain	5
	An alternative view of co-evolution	7
	Language areas in the brain	10
	Aphasia as evidence of the brain’s representation of language	11
	The language faculty (localization and modularity)	12
2	Aspects of linguistic competence	15
	Introduction	15
	Forms and meanings	17
	Minimal design features of a language	21
	Phonology and syntax as aspects of form	23
	Phonology: the sound patterns of spoken language	24
	Prosody: the phonology of supra-segmental features	26
	Semantics: the representation of meaning	30
	Assertion/presupposition and clause structure	31
	Specificity, reference and deixis	32
	Thematic roles and case	34
	Time reference: tense, aspect and modality	35
	Concluding remarks	36
3	The neuroanatomy of language	40
	Introduction	40
	An orientation to the structures of the cerebral cortex	42
	Discovery of the language areas	48
	The classical account: the Broca-Wernicke-Lichtheim (BWL) model	50
	Non-localizationist views	55
	Site of lesion studies	56
	The neuropsychological perspective	57
	Neural imaging	59
	Metabolic functional imaging	60
	Encephalographic functional imaging	60
	Magnetoencephalography	62
	Combined imaging methods	63
	The subtraction method	63
	Summary: functional neural imaging	64
	Postscript: linguistic structures and the neuroanatomy of language	64
4	On modularity and method	66
	Introduction	66
	Chomskian modularity	68
	Fodorian modularity	69
	Summary: Fodor’s concept of modularity	72
	Modularity uncoupled: Max’s chocolate factory	73
	Modularity and real-time processing	76
	Real-time processing	77
	The connectionist challenge	79
	Connectionist architectures	80
	Connectionist models and neural networks	82
	Symbolic algorithms versus statistical processors	82
	Hybrid models	83
	Summarizing	84
	Modularity of linguistic competence	85
	Fodor’s modularity of processing	88
	Coltheart’s functional modularity	89
part II	Speech perception and auditory processing
5	The problem of speech recognition	93
	Introduction	93
	Three aspects of word recognition	93
	Speech signals, spectrograms and speech recognition	94
	A simple model of speech recognition: phoneme to sound matching	95
	An alternative model: word to sound pattern-matching	96
	Why speech recognition is difficult	96
	The segmentation problem	96
	The variability problem	97
	The rate of information transmission in speech perception	100
	Lexical retrieval in speech perception	101
	Phonological parsing prior to lexical access	102
	Phonetic forms and phonological representations	105
	Under-specified (abstract) versus fully specified (concrete) forms	108
	Discrete (categorical) versus graded (continuous) properties	108
	Hierarchical organization versus entrainment	109
	Summary	110
6	Speech perception: paradigms and findings	112
	Introduction	112
	The speech mode hypothesis	113
	Strong and weak versions of the speech mode hypothesis	114
	Dichotic listening	115
	Categorical perception	117
	Coarticulation effects and category boundary shifts	122
	Duplex perception	123
	Sine wave speech	125
	Conclusions: is speech perception special?	126
	Linguistic experience and phonological parsing	127
	Tuning the auditory system: perceptual magnet effects	128
	Prosodic bootstrapping	129
	Phonetic and phonological levels of processing in speech recognition	132
	Conclusions from the gating experiments	137
7	The speech recognition lexicon	140
	Introduction	140
	Search models of lexical retrieval	142
	The TRACE model	144
	Architecture of TRACE	144
	Lexical effects in TRACE	146
	Empirical tests of the TRACE model	147
	Modelling coarticulation effects and other sequential dependencies	149
	Modelling variability: a challenge for connectionist models?	152
	Auditory-phonetic and phonological levels of representation	154
8	Disorders of auditory processing	155
	Introduction	155
	Flow-on effects of temporal sequencing deficit	157
	Levels and types of auditory processing disorder	158
	Clinical classification of auditory processing disorders	159
	Disturbances of auditory-acoustic processing	160
	Cortical deafness	161
	Auditory agnosia	161
	Auditory-acoustic processing deficits and aphasia	163
	Effects of brain damage on phonetic feature extraction	164
	Pure word deafness	164
	Studies of prevalence of word-sound deafness	165
	The nature of word-sound deafness	165
	The neural basis for speech agnosia or pure word deafness	168
	Mirror neurons and the speech-motor loop	171
	Disturbances in accessing the recognition lexicon	173
	Summary	175
part III	Lexical semantics
9	Morphology and the mental lexicon	179
	Introduction	179
	Morphological decomposition in the mental lexicon	181
	Psycholinguistic studies of word structure	184
	Semantic and morphological relatedness	186
	Priming effects of prefixes and suffixes	187
	Conclusions from the Marslen-Wilson et al. study	188
	Cross-linguistic generalizations on morphological processing	189
	Neuroimaging studies of normal and aphasic morphological processes	190
	PET and MEG studies of morphological processing	190
	Summary	196
10	Lexical semantics	199
	Introduction	199
	Semantic networks	201
	Testing Quillian’s model	204
	Evaluation of TLC	205
	From word to sentence meanings	205
	Conceptual dependency theory	207
	Evaluation of symbolic models of lexical semantics	209
	Investigating semantic structures	210
	The role of context in word-sense disambiguation	211
	Semantic priming and the activation/retrieval of word meaning	211
	Results: associative and semantic priming and the effect of prime type	214
	Brain imaging studies of lexical semantic activation	215
	Summary	219
11	Lexical semantic disorders in aphasia	221
	Introduction	221
	Early work	223
	Competence or performance deficit in lexical semantic disorder?	225
	Behavioural on-line measures of lexical access and organization in aphasia	226
	On-line lexical processing in Wernicke’s aphasia	227
	On-line lexical processing in Broca’s aphasia	228
	Lexical integration in aphasia	230
	Category-specific semantic impairment	232
	A case study of domain-specific semantic impairment	235
	Explaining patterns of category-specific semantic impairment	237
	Summary	238
part IV	Sentence comprehension
12	Sentence comprehension and syntactic parsing	243
	Introduction	243
	Syntactic processing and sentence comprehension	244
	The grammar and the parser	245
	Competing models of sentence processing	249
	Asyntactic sentence comprehension: the case of agrammatism	250
	Thematic role assignment and sentence comprehension	250
	Reversible passive constructions	251
	Canonical word order and thematic relations in complex sentences	253
	Strategies for processing complex sentences	254
	Summary: grammatical heuristics and agrammatism	255
	Ambiguity resolution and syntactic parsing strategies	256
	Lexical and syntactic ambiguity	257
	Why ambiguity is important for theories of language processing	258
	Minimal attachment	259
	Testing minimal attachment	261
	Local ambiguities and garden path sentences	261
	Summary	264
13	On-line processing, working memory and modularity	266
	Introduction	266
	Working memory, parsing and syntactic complexity	266
	Individual differences in working memory capacity and sentence processing	269
	Modularity and VWMC	270
	Sequential or parallel processing as a capacity effect	273
	Syntactic complexity	275
	Gibson’s model of parsing complexity	276
	Properties of Gibson’s parser	278
	Summary and recapitulation	279
	Syntactic trace reactivation	280
	Load/capacity effects and the cross-modal lexical priming paradigm	284
	Recapitulation and summary: trace reactivation and the CMLP paradigm	285
	Neural imaging techniques and on-line sentence processing	286
	Phrase structure and argument structure violations and ERPs	288
	Jabberwocky sentence processing and ERPs	290
	Deep and surface anaphora	291
	General summary and conclusions	294
14	Agrammatism revisited	297
	Introduction	297
	Agrammatism revisited	299
	Off-line methods of language comprehension assessment	300
	A case for syntactic deficit in Broca’s aphasia	301
	A case against syntactic deficit in Broca’s aphasia	304
	Three theories of agrammatism	309
	Weighing the evidence	312
	Grammaticality judgement and sentence comprehension	312
	Trace reactivation and on-line measures of sentence processing	317
	Slow retrieval or under-activation of lexical items	319
	Self-paced listening and transient processing load	320
	ERP imaging of on-line sentence processing in aphasia	323
	Summary and conclusion	324
part V	Discourse: language comprehension in context
15	Discourse processing	331
	Introduction	331
	Discourse modelling	332
	Discourse construction: an example	333
	Reference management and pragmatic knowledge	335
	Relevance	336
	Strong and weak implicature and relevance	337
	Refining a model of discourse	338
	Under-specification	339
	Sentence-level discourse devices	339
	Studies of discourse anaphora resolution	341
	On-line studies of discourse anaphora	343
	Summary	345
16	Breakdown of discourse	346
	Introduction	346
	Language and psychosis	349
	Characteristics of thought disordered speech	350
	A study of thought disordered speech	351
	Cognitive impairment and thought disordered language	354
	Summarizing the evidence on executive dysfunction in thought disorder	359
	Neurological models of thought disorder	361
	The dopamine hypothesis	362
	The cingulate modulation hypothesis	363
	Conclusion	366
17	Conclusion and prospectus	367
	Introduction	367
	Connectionist models of language processing: a case study	367
	Embodied cognition as a perspective on language processing	374
	Concrete or abstract perceptual representations of speech sounds	377
	Lexical retrieval mechanisms	378
	Discourse structure and embodiment	378

	Glossary	380
	References	387
	Index	414

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An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and its Disorders

Series: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics

John C. L. Ingram

University of Queensland

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