Primate and Human Evolution

Index

17-β-estradiol 244

ABO blood group 139, 140

abstract reasoning

   conspecifics inhibiting 168

   in learning enhanced primates 168

   inability to transfer abstract rules 170

Acacia 103, 104

Acacia drepanolobium 104

Acheulean Industry 265, 308, 324, 348, 367, 368, 383

acquired characteristics, inheritance of 15

acrocephaly 305

Adapis parisiensis 317

adaptation 107, 197, 201, 206, 256, 263, 290, 293, 296, 305

   methods for studying 117–19

   postulated non-existence of 115

   skepticism about 107, 113, 114, 115–17, 126

   studying in fossil species 119–24

   the “adaptationist program” 115–17

adaptive changes in size and shape 220–30, 249

   altitude adaptation 243

   at temperature extremes 220

   heat adaptation 239–42

   insular dwarfing 220–1

   rate of change 221–9

adaptive radiation(s) 57, 65–70, 72, 73–4, 75, 76, 78, 82, 91, 113, 123, 201, 218, 258, 260, 261–2, 287, 302, 312, 313, 346, 382–4

adaptive traits

   analyzing 113–14

   distorting cladistic analysis 109

adaptive zone(s) 4, 10, 109, 110, 123, 124, 239, 287, 350, 383

Aegyptopithecus 216

Afropithecus 67

Afropithecus turkanensis 211–12

Agassiz, Louis 318

AIDS/SIV 133, 139–40

AL 288-1 122, 236, 237, 293, 354, 355

AL 333 304, 341, 372

AL 400-1a 269, 299

Alcock’s law 366

Allen’s rule 220, 227–9, 241, 242

Allocebus trichotis 12

allometric power function 205

allometry, see body size 9, 124, 213

   and mammalian masticatory system 205–6

   and number of niches 298

   and sexual size dimorphism 217

   fractal scaling 205–6

Alouatta 7

Alouatta caraya 66

Alouatta palliata 40

Alouatta seniculus 187

Altanius orlovi 207

altitude, high 127, 243

   and human physiology 127

altricial 314

altruism, see altruistic punishment, inclusive fitness, kin selection, penalty-free altruism, reciprocal altruism 53, 189, 190, 375, 378

altruistic punishment 191–2

Amphipithecus 63

agenesis (phyletic transformation) 84, 115

anatomical genomics, see evolutionary development 107, 117, 124–6, 283–6

anatomically modern humans, origin of 227, 228, 308–10, 344, 380

anatomy 107

   as link between genetics and physiology 117

Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives 50

anencephaly 305

Anolis 381

anthropoid(s) 1

   body size in 101, 207

   cerebellum size in 177

   first anthropoids 62–4

   formerly a synonym for “ape” 1

   number of living species 12

   origins of 207

   Suborder Anthropoidea 1

   visual centers in brain of 177

Anthropological Institute and Museum, University of Zürich 124, 127

Antilocapra americana 201

antipredator defense, see vigilance, antipredator 187, 315, 375, 385, 388

   rare in primates 187

Aotus 7, 12, 139, 187

Aotus trivirgatus 12

ape and monkey bias in awareness of primates 11, 12

Apidium 64, 288

apomorphy (apomorphies) 108

archeological record, the, see stone tools

   and climatic change 331–3

   and ethnographic evidence 333–6

   and stereotyped tools 367

   and geological principles 320–1

   and the nature of “sites” 343–4

   and time-averaging 266

   antiquity first recognized 319–20

   bone modification and 329–31

   complex behaviors in 152

   first appearance of 150, 155, 159, 306, 321–4, 331–3, 347, 358, 385

   food-sharing and division of labor 336–40

   increasing complexity of 150, 155, 159, 183, 195, 303, 331–3, 375

   near water sources 240

   oldest sites 322–3

   pair-bonding 340–2

   sites with only hominid-modified bones 330–1

archeology

   and discovery of human antiquity 317–21

   and geological principles 320–1

   origins of 317

Archencephala 36, 146

archetype(s) 21, 107

Archonta 3

Ardipithecus kadabba 292

Ardipithecus ramidus 78

Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba 78, 280

Aristotle 31, 32

artificial digital organisms (“avidians”) 20

artificial intelligence 157–9, 192–3, 277

   classically based on human intelligence 159

artificial selection 17, 121, 126, 351

associations, long term 185, 186, 313, 376

Ateles 274

Ateles geoffroyi 40, 88, 133, 134, 275

attention, attentiveness

   and emotional states 175

   and goal-directed behavior 172

   brain anatomy underlying 172–3

   high attentional load 173

   pre-attentive processing 174

auditory bulla 8

Aurignacian Industry 309

australopithecine(s) 43, 45, 48, 50, 51, 121, 175, 210, 269, 285, 286, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298–9, 303–4, 312, 314, 322, 323–4, 325–8, 334, 339, 341–2, 346, 354–9, 372, 378

   brain size in 148

   diet of 299–300

   first discovery of 44

   locomotion in 121–2, 271, 279, 290–1

   resolution of hominid status 45–6

   viewed as divergent hominid group 46, 55

australopithecines, gracile 298–300

australopithecines, robust 178, 212, 250, 298–300

Australopithecus 45, 55, 65, 293, 295, 297, 305, 327

Australopithecus afarensis 122, 214, 236, 242, 269, 279, 290, 293, 299, 304, 323, 341–2, 354, 355, 372

Australopithecus africanus 242, 298–300, 325, 337

Australopithecus bahrelghazali 377

Australopithecus boisei 46, 47, 178, 211–12, 286, 296, 298–9, 302, 331

Australopithecus garhi 306, 322, 331, 357

Australopithecus robustus 211–12, 286, 296, 298–300, 302, 304, 326–7, 356, 357

   sexual dimorphism in 216

autism 172

   and brain anomalies 177

   and Theory of Mind 172, 177, 366

β-catenin 147–8

“baboon Renaissance” 50–2

“babysitting” 193, 315, 375, 376, 387

Batodonoides vanhouteni 203

behavioral ecology, see primate behavioral ecology

   differences between hominids and other catarrhines 144–5

   natural selection on hominid 170

behavioral evolution, proximate and ultimate causes of 196–7

Bergmann’s rule 220, 227–9, 241, 243

bi-iliac breadth 241, 242, 356, 378

bilophodont molars 73, 313

Binford, Lewis 145, 314, 335, 336, 343–4

biodisparity 94, 106, 113, 303

biodiversity through geological time 59, 258, 270

biomass 98, 179, 215

   in tropical rainforest 102, 106

biomechanical analysis 119, 121–2, 272, 274, 275, 276–9, 283, 288, 290

biomedical primatology 137–40

   and the history of medicine 138

   dominating primate research 137–8

   increasing presence in biomedical research 139

   strong future growth in 137–8

bipedalism 271–91, 324, 337, 350, 356, 358, 378

   and daily movement 278

   and knuckle-walking 275

   and monkey performance plays 28, 276–7

   and Oreopithecus 287–9

   and size of hominid cerebellum 176

   and vertical climbing 274–5

   ape models for origin of 271–5

     hylobatian model 274, 281

     orangutan model 275

   as hominid distinction 35, 37, 145, 271

   as an adaptive grade 286–7

   energy efficiency of 276–9, 359–60, 361

   first evidence of 78, 280

   in australopithecines 121–2, 271

   morphology affected by behavior 276–7

   origins of 37, 38, 68–9, 142, 280–7, 312, 321, 346–7, 359–60, 373, 377, 384–5

Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich 35

Boas, Franz 351

body mass index (BMI) 244, 245–6

   and sexual dimorphism 246

body size 203–50

   and behavior 213–15

   and brain size 147

   and expected number of species 297–8

   and extinction 101

   and daily movement 278

   and diet 329–30

   and expected number of species 297–8

   and food, as limiting factor in population size 197–8

   and food requirements 234–6, 353

   and home range size 213–15

   and insular dwarfing 220–1

   and interspecific competition 300

   and metabolic rate 204–5

   and niche of fossil species 123, 203–4, 248–9

   and number of niches 298

   and paleocommunity reconstruction 209–13

   and predation 197–8, 380

   and reproductive success 246–7

   and sex-biased parasitism 217

   and speciation 85, 86, 93

   and temperature extremes 220

   and the fossil record 261–2

   and the secular trend 221–4

   consequences of increase in 358

   heritability of 351–2

   in catarrhines 141, 384

   in fossil hominids 209, 289

   in fossil primates 207

   in humans and other catarrhines 245–7

   in primates 101–2, 206–8

   measuring of, in fossil species 208–9

   of mother and neonatal size 247

   population-level differences in 231–2

   rapid changes in 221–9, 351–2

   reduction in, since terminal Pleistocene 221

   reversible changes in 218–19

   range of, in mammals 203

   selection pressures affecting evolution of 203–8

   significance of differences in, among fossil hominids 236–9

   strong phylogenetic signal of 201

body size and shape 220–30, 354

   and improving nutrition 232–3

   and insular dwarfing 220–1

   and temperature extremes 220, 221, 240–2

   and the secular trend 221–4

   changes of, in fossil hominids 353–61

   rapid changes in 221–9

body weight, genetic basis of 245–6

bone tools

   at South African sites 326–7

   oldest 324–8

   Osteodontokeratic Culture 325–6

Boucher de Perthes, Jacques 317, 320

Bouri 322, 330, 357

“brachiation” 37

   “brachiation” model 38, 271–2

   re-definitions of 272-4

brain

   and genomic imprinting 171

   and primate sociality 172

   emotional vs. executive 171

   metabolic processing in 175–6

   sex differences in metabolic processing 176

   spatial competition within 176

brain, avian 174

   seasonal changes in 219

Brain, C. K. 262–5, 326, 329

brain anatomy 171

   and tool behavior 178–9

   cerebellum, size and function 176–8

   in living humans 147–8

   seasonal changes in 219

   species-specific differences in cerebellum 177

   underlying attention and attentiveness 172–3

   underlying natural history intelligence 171–9

brain evolution 149

   comparative mammalian 173–9

   convergent 173

   in hominids 146–8, 173

   mosaic evolution in 181

   rate of, in hominids 174

brain size 8, 46, 50, 51, 146–8, 149, 173–4, 180–1, 208, 244, 305–6, 355, 356, 387

   in dwarfed species 220

breeding season, length of 194

Broca’s area 310, 370

Caenorhabditis elegans 229

Callicebus 12

Callimico 207

Callithrix 12

Callithrix jacchus 137

   flexibility of reproductive output in 226–7, 374

callitrichid(s)

   and complex sociality 179, 314, 315, 373, 374, 375

   and secondary reduction of body size 207

   body size in 217

   high rate of increase in 137, 139

   in biomedical research 139

Caluromys philander 9

Can Llobateres 68, 142, 280

captive studies of, non-human primates 128–40

captivity

   abnormal behaviors in 130–2

   and environmental enrichment 129, 136

   and maturation rates 224–7

   and population increase 197

   and reproductive success 224–7

   and species survival 129

   and subsistence 224

   alleviating abnormal behavior in 135–7

   increased contact with conspecifics in 170

   influence of, on behavior 128–37

   risk of abnormal behavior in 134–35

carbon isotope excursion (CIE) 61, 83

Carpenter, Clarence Ray 43, 50, 51, 340

   anthropological disinterest in work of 41

   pioneer in primate behavioral ecology 40–2

Carpolestes simpsoni 3

Catagonus wagneri 259

catarrhine substrate 141, 281–3

catarrhine(s) 6, 7, 28, 110, 316, 357, 369, 371, 373, 378, 384, 387

   body size in 207, 217

   dominating biomedical research 138

   early fossil 61, 62–4

   Miocene 65–70, 73–4

     postcranium of 66, 67

   physiological unity of 138

   Plio-Pleistocene 73–6

   sociality in, see cercopithecoid social organization 163

   unity of living 9, 25, 39, 150

Catopithecus 216

Cayo Santiago Island 41, 138, 197

Cebidae, Family 106

Cebuella 207

Cebus 168, 187, 199, 328

Cebus apella 168–70, 171, 177, 192, 200, 386

   greatest development of tool behavior among non-human primates 168–70, 171

   terrestrial foraging in 169

   tool behavior in 168–70

Cebus capucinus 169, 187, 200

Cecropia 169

cenogram(s) 209

Cenozoic 3, 4, 58, 77, 78, 81, 216, 252, 254, 383

central place 338, 343

Cercopithecidae, Family 288

cercopithecoid(s) 328

   biomass 215

   origins 73

   radiation 73–6, 78

   social organization 112, 144, 161, 313, 316, 346, 371, 373

   terrestriality 74

Cercopithecus 12, 26, 27, 70, 90, 101

Cercopithecus aethiops 74, 103, 139, 164, 384

   mind of 163–5

Cercopithecus albogularis 282

Cercopithecus neglectus 218

cerebellum

   cognitive functions in 177

   relative size and function of 176–8

   relative size in humans 176–7

   relative size in primates 177

   size in robust australopithecines 177–8

cerebral Rubicon 305

character displacement, see competition, resource, Hutchinsonian ratios 70, 71, 218

   defined 301

   evidence for 71, 72, 301–2

   studying with morphospace 123

Cheirogaleus medius

   hibernation in 206

chimeras 374, 381

“chimpocentrism” 150, 152, 184, 345, 368, 373

   defined 149

ChimpWorld software 192, 193

C.I.T.E.S. (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) 25, 104

cladistics 22

   cladistic methodology 107–15

   cladistic systematics 107–15

   problems with cladistic phylogenies 109–12, 114–15, 121, 287, 293, 296, 312, 384

   synopsis of 108

   testing cladistic phylogenies 111

   true phylogenies 108, 111, 113

climate change

   and the archeological record 80

   critical periods 77, 78

   driving evolution 79–80, 345

   late Cenozoic 76–80, 346

climatic adaptation and body build 220, 221, 227–9

coalitions 191

cognition

   and emotion 175

   convergent evolution of 174

Colobus guereza 75

Colobus kirkii 105

colugos (order Dermoptera) 3, 383

community

   defining 60

   equilibrium state 59–61

   structure and competition 70–2

competition, see social competition, primate, see female-female competition

   as evolutionary force 79

   inter-specific 73, 118, 123, 205, 209–13, 248, 300, 302, 362, 363, 382

   intra-group 112, 118, 143, 171, 185, 194–5, 247, 313, 346, 371, 373, 375, 378

   intra-specific 248, 304, 341, 342

   resource, see character displacement 70–1, 72, 92, 93–4, 261

   social, see Machiavellian intelligence 161, 162, 163, 167, 168, 193

“composite mammal” model 314–16, 388

condylarths 382

conflict resolution 185

conservation

   and reserves 96

   and species multiplication 115

   efforts 94–5

“contemporary evolution” 80, 81, 256, 264, 351–3

   defined 352

contingency in evolution 255

convergent evolution 85, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 118, 173, 174, 181, 208, 220, 241, 375, 383–4

Cope’s rule 208

corneal size 7

Craseonycteris thonglongyai 203

Cross River gorillas 105

cryptic species 12, 19, 86

Cryptoprocta ferox 106

culture 42, 366, 370

   dependent on imitation and teaching 162

   in animals 52, 151–2, 153, 179

   separating humans and animals 42–3

   traditions in primates 199–201

     in great apes and hominid culture 200

curation, artifact 155, 328, 331

Curie, Marie Sklodowska 319, 350

Cuvier, Georges 119, 255, 317

D2280 353

D2700 305, 353, 355

Dart, Raymond A. 44, 269, 293

   describes first australopithecine 44, 325

   Osteodontokeratic Culture 325–6

Darwin, Charles 13, 15, 16–17, 19, 22, 36, 319, 321

Dassenetch people 216, 242

dating, chronometric 252, 253, 307, 308

dating, relative 318

“dead clade walking” effect 260

Dehnel effect 219

Deinonychus 121, 126

Dendropithecus 67

Dendropithecus macinnesi 67, 210–12

developmental constraint(s) 126, 256

DeVore, Irven 51, 312, 313, 334, 339

diet

   and changes in body size and shape 221–4, 232–3, 329–30

   and reproductive success 224–7, 230

   and sexual dimorphism 233–4

   in fossil humans 336–40

   in fossil species 122–3

   studied through stable isotopes 123

dietary specialization 100

Dinka people 241, 242

directional selection 208

dispersal

   across water barriers 89–90

   and biotic turnover 83

   and geographic range 96–7

   delayed, and sociality 190

   of Homo erectus 239, 243, 306, 354–9, 378, 383

   potential 76, 248, 377, 378

   routes 69

“sweepstakes” dispersal 89, 90

divergence times (origins)

   from fossil and molecular evidence 257–8, 261–2

diversification 57, 82, 84, 86, 297–8

division of labor 271, 290, 335, 336–40, 346, 350, 375, 378

DK site 322

Dmanisi 221, 243, 306, 353, 355, 361

DNA 18, 111, 115

   coding and non-coding 18, 65

DNA-DNA hybridization 254, 258

DNH 7 357

DNH 8 357

dominance 180, 346, 374

   in catarrhine societies 144, 161, 316, 371

   reduced in bonobos 171

Drimolen 216, 326, 327, 356

Drosophila 256

Drosophila melanogaster 229

dryopithecine 37

dryopithecine molar pattern 37

Dryopithecus 74

Dryopithecus fontani 22, 317

Dryopithecus laietanus 68–9, 142, 280

Dubois, Eugène 307

Ebola outbreaks 132–3

eccrine sweat glands 240, 249–50

ecological release 248, 383

ectodysplasin 112, 300, 383

ectomorphy (ectomorphic) 220, 241, 242, 279, 355, 356, 357, 361

Egarapithecus 74

emergent complexity 192–3

endemism, endemic species 288, 383

   in Madagascar 106

endocasts 63, 146, 309, 370

Eocene 3, 5, 59, 61, 64, 72, 120, 216, 318, 382

Eosimias 63, 207

Erythrocebus patas 74, 104

Essay on the Principle of Population 16

essentialism vs. population-thinking 20–2, 116

estrus 142, 342

   extension in captivity 142

ethology 41, 196–7

Eupleres goudotii 106

euprimate(s) 3, 5, 8, 10, 59, 61, 62–4, 82, 83, 84

eusocial, eusociality 143, 190, 191, 316, 374, 375

Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature 22–5, 36

Evolution and Ethics 197

evolutionary development 110, 117, 124–6

   and comparative morphology 125–6, 283–6

evolutionary rates, see phenotypic change, rates of 81, 151

Experiments in Plant Hybridization 17

extinction(s), see mass extinctions 13, 57, 59, 72, 73–4, 81–6, 254–5, 297, 382–4

   and environmental change 73–4, 77, 84

   and loss of tropical rainforest 95

   conservation efforts and primate 94–5

   factors affecting primate 96–101, 259

   factors affecting recovery from 259–62

   factors affecting risk of 105–6

   following human colonization 84–5

   following introduced species 60

   in Australia 85

   in living primates 72, 94–102, 106

   megafaunal 85

   Miocene hominoids 73–4

   on islands 84–5, 96

   patterns in living mammals 94

   periodicity of major 255–6

   predictions about future 95

   rates of 261

   studying with morphospace 123

extractive foraging 150, 179, 367

Fayum fossil sites, paleoecology of 64

female–female competition 186, 195, 217, 346, 371, 373

   food competition 247, 373

Ficus 281

fire 144, 346, 368–9, 378

Fire of Life, The 204

first and last appearances 258–9

“First Pharmacopeia” 156

FLK Zinjanthropus 48, 155

fluctuating asymmetry 364

“folk physics”

   different in apes and humans 160, 161

food deprivation (starvation) 234–6, 245

food deprivation experiments (caloric restriction) 229–30, 235, 236, 251

“food for thought” 154

food-sharing 321, 336–40, 342, 346, 371

Fossa fossa 106

fossil record, the 252–70

   and time intervals 264

   and divergence times 257–8

   extinction risk recovery 259–62

   first and last appearances 258–9

   mismatch between fossil and molecular dates 258, 261–2

   periodicity of major extinctions 255–6

   physical determinants of, and diversity 252–5

   rates of evolution 262–5, 352

   time-averaging 265–6

fossil species

   measuring body size in 208–9

   niches of 203–4, 296–7

   predicted number of species 297–8

   studying adaptation in 119–24

founder’s effect 18

FOXP2 310, 370

fractal scaling 205–6

Freud, Sigmund 43

Froude number 277

fruiting

   lack of synchronized, in the tropics 99

functional matrix theory 305

functional morphology 107, 290

   and evolutionary development 125–6

   adaptation foundation of 107

   analyzing function 113–14

   denigrated by the “adaptationist program” 115–17

   in fossil species 119–24

   resurrection of 116

FwJj 14B 332

Gabra people 97

Gadeb 243

Galen 32

game theory 191

Garner, R. L. 36

Gause’s law 295

gene(s)

   expression 147, 283–6

   expression in evolutionary development 125, 174, 283–6

   problematic definition of 18, 284

generalist vs. specialist, see species, generalized vs. specialized 101

genetic drift 18, 86, 90, 105, 256, 257, 353

genetic relatedness, humans and other animals 11, 18–19, 65

genetic variability, natural populations 116, 126

genetics

   linking, to morphology 111–12, 351

   suspicions about 107, 116–17

   used to study morphology and adaptation 116, 117

genomics (comparative genomics), see anatomical genomics 18–19, 65, 117, 125, 245, 352

geographic range, factors affecting 96–7

geological time scale 56

   age of the earth 318–19

   geological principles and archeology 320–1

   relative dating 318

Gesher Benot Ya’aqov 368

Von Gesner, Konrad 33

Gigantopithecus 299

Gigantopithecus blacki 123

Goldschmidt, Richard 116

Gombe Reserve 29, 48, 168, 195, 200

Gona 322, 323–4

Gorilla 207

gorilla, first description of 36

   mountain gorilla 198

   body size of 206, 207

grade(s) 109, 123, 260, 286–7, 350

la Grande Coupure 59, 84

“grandmothering” 372

grasslands, spread of 78, 280, 331–3, 360

Great Chain of Being 13–15, 32, 35

   history of concept 13–15

   living primates viewed as 24

   relationship to vitalism 15

   religious aspects of 14

Gregory, William King 8, 37, 38, 46, 119–20, 272

   early acceptance of australopithecines as hominids 45

   Keith/Gregory “brachiation” model 38, 271–2

Griphopithecus alpani 66

Grotte des Enfants 4 228

group augmentation 192, 375, 379

group selection theory 188–9

habitat fragmentation 96, 97–9, 187

Hadar 269, 290, 299, 341, 372

Hadrocodium wui 203

Hadzabe people 244, 279, 310

Von Hagens, Gunther 33

Hall, K. R. L. 132, 199

Hamilton, William D. 189, 192

Hanno 31

Hapalemur 100, 154

Harlow, Harry 130

heat adaptation 239–42, 249–50, 378

Hediger, Heini 129

Helogale parvula 315

Hennig, Willi 107

heredity, mechanisms of, unknown in nineteenth century 17

Herto 308

heterochrony 38

hippocampus, relative size and growth of 174

HLA (human leukocyte antigen system) 189

Holocene 92, 232, 264

home base 312, 338, 343

home range 213–15, 248, 278–9, 280, 298, 338, 349, 359, 360, 378

   smaller than expected, in primates 215, 278–9

hominid behavioral ecology 144–5

hominid locomotion, see bipedalism 25, 37, 121–2

hominid niche, the 250, 293–8

   sympatry and 298–303

hominid origins 24

   analogs to generate models of 52

   and “brachiation” model 38, 271–2

   and Messinian salinity crisis 78, 80

   and parapatric speciation 93

   ape models of 38, 271–5

   chromosomal novelties and 92

   early divergence 45

   from extinct great apes 24, 37, 292

   from generalized catarrhine ancestor 39, 272

   in the Gobi Desert 120

   molecular clock and 65

   not caused by simple climatic forcing 283

   traditionally explained by climate change 52, 76, 77

hominid radiation

   and morphospace analysis 302–3

   body size and niche availability 298

   coterminous with cercopithecoid radiation 75, 78

   diet and body size 329–30

   diet of sympatric species 299–300

   dispersion from Africa 306

   hominid diet 336–40

   Homo erectus in Asia

   modern human population history 310

   niche differentiation 293–8

   niches of genus Homo 296–7

   origin of anatomically modern humans 308–10

   origin of Homo 305–6

   Plio-Pleistocene hominids 287, 292–3, 310

   predicted number of species 297–8

   sexual dimorphism 303–4

   sympatric species and Hutchinsonian ratios 302

   sympatry and niche structure 298–301, 303

hominid sociality, see sociality, hominid

hominid species

   body size in 209, 353–61

   competition between 212–13

   expected number of 297–8

   extinction of 95

   niches of 293–8

   Plio-Pleistocene species 212–13

   significance of body size differences between 236–9

   speciation 292

   taxonomy and 296–7

hominids (Family Hominidae) 1

   advantages of traditional taxonomy 1

   molecular systematics of 64–5

   taxonomic revision of 239, 293

hominization 202, 336, 344–50, 371, 384, 386

hominoid postcranium 66, 67, 68–9, 142, 273, 274–5

hominoid systematics

   molecular 64–5

   possible subgenera in living 65

   traditional 1

Hominoidea, Superfamily 272

hominoids 72

   ancestors of living 69–70

   Miocene radiation 65–70, 72, 346

     extinctions 73–4

     interspecific competition 73, 209–13

     niche diversity in 210–12, 302

     niche separation in paleocommunities 209–13

     niches of species in 67, 73

Homo 20, 46, 49, 65, 178, 210, 211–12, 214, 237, 239, 250, 274, 285, 287, 294, 296–7, 298–300, 302, 303, 304, 324, 331, 354, 357, 362, 363, 377

   contemporary with australopithecines 49

   origins of 305–6

   taxonomic revision 239

Homo antecessor 296–7

Homo erectus 155, 178, 221, 229, 236, 238–9, 241, 243, 296–7, 298–9, 303, 304, 306–7, 308, 326–7, 329, 331, 335, 337, 343, 344, 353, 354–9, 365, 372, 378, 379

   and adaptive shift 238–9

   and dispersal 239, 243, 353–61

   bipedalism in 279

   body size and proportions of 238–9, 279, 353–61

Homo ergaster 296

Homo floresiensis 220–1

Homo habilis (Australopithecus habilis) 48, 49, 181, 237, 286, 293, 296–7, 353

Homo heidelbergensis 296–7, 303

Homo helmei 296–7

Homo rudolfensis (Australopithecus rudolfensis) 293, 296–7, 353

Homo sapiens 278, 296, 297, 355

Homo sapiens sapiens 308, 325, 355

homologous traits 110

homoplasy 110, 112, 124, 126, 274, 287, 312, 329, 375, 383–4

Hooton, E. A. 41, 50, 340

Howell, F. Clark 49, 336

Hox 11, 125, 283–5, 286

Hox 9 284, 286

Hox 10 284, 285, 286

Hox 11 286

Hox a13 125, 284, 285

Hox d11 125, 284, 285

Hox d13 125, 284, 285

Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer 53

human and animal relationships 27–8, 30, 52

human antiquity, discovery of 317–21

humans, species-specific traits of 147–8, 222, 236, 240, 243–6

hunter-gatherers 244

   in reconstructing Paleolithic societies 50, 51, 52, 333–6, 345

   subsistence in 223, 243, 340, 343

hunting by primates 179, 200–1

hunting of primates 102, 133, 200–1

Huntington’s disease 177

Hutchinson, G. Evelyn 72, 209

   Hutchinsonian ratios 209–12, 213, 300–1, 302

   minimal niche separation 72, 209–12, 213

Huxley, Julian 123, 300

Huxley, Thomas Henry 22, 292

   animals as automata 158

   comparative anatomy and primate evolution 22–5, 36, 146

   explains human variation 35

   public lectures and teaching 22–3

   no natural basis for morality 197

   use of grade concept 123

hybridization 19, 70, 92–3, 312

hydrocephaly 305

Hylobates 207

hylobatid model of hominid origins 38, 271–4

hylobatids 346

   arboreal locomotion, see “brachiation” 33, 196, 272–4, 281, 385

   limb anatomy 285

   origins of 39, 69

   social system 340

   unknown to Western science 33

hypervitaminosis A 238

Ignacius graybullianus 8

Ileret 76, 216, 242, 254, 331, 332, 349

imitation 162, 366

   and autistic humans 177

   necessary for culture 162

   not present in captive primate tool behavior 171, 348, 366, 367, 370

imprinting, genomic 171

   and brain development 171

   and Machiavellian intelligence 172

   and natural history intelligence 172

   and primate sociality 172

inclusive fitness 53, 189

Indri 207

Indricotherium 203

infancy and rearing in callitrichids 143

infanticide 53, 185, 194, 196, 247, 316, 325, 342, 373

“insect robots” 157–9

   used to study animal behavior 158

insular dwarfing 220–1

insular evolution 288

intelligence, see artificial intelligence, natural history intelligence, social cognition, technical intelligence

   and brain size 148

   and size of frontal lobes 171

   captive studies of 128, 136

   comparative 40, 128

   general or fluid, g 157, 159, 171

   genetic basis for 171

   hominid 146, 386–7

     origins with anatomically modern humans 156–7

   ideas on the origins of 150–5, 336

   use of non-catarrhines or non-primates to examine 148

Isaac, Glynn 330, 335, 336, 338, 343–4, 372

ischial callosities 142, 385

IUCN (World Conservation Union) Red List 104, 115

Jolly, Clifford 93, 281, 312

Kabwe 308

Kada Hadar Member 323

Kalepithecus 67

Kanjera South 323

Karari Escarpment 267, 379

Karari Industry 348, 349, 367

KBS volcanic tuff 49, 253

Keith, Sir Arthur 33, 37, 273, 305

   Keith/Gregory model of human origins 38, 271–2

Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) 319

Kenyanthropus platyops 296

Kenyapithecus 68, 73

Khoisan people 231–2, 250–1, 278, 310

Khoratpithecus chiangmuanensis 69

Khoratpithecus piriyai 69

kin recognition, mechanisms of 189

kin selection, see inclusive fitness 189–90, 194, 373, 375, 376

Klasies River Mouth 231, 308

Kleiber, Max 204

Kleiber’s law 204, 205, 208

KNM-ER 407A 178

KNM-ER 1470 49, 296, 353

KNM-ER 1805 293, 305

KNM-ER 1808 236

   pathology in 238

KNM-ER 1813 305, 353

KNM-ER 3733 243

KNM-WT 15000 238–9, 241–2, 243, 293, 329, 353, 355, 357

   bipedalism in 279

   maturation rate in 238

knuckle-walking 68, 274

   phase of human evolution 38, 275

Koobi Fora 49, 155, 211–12, 243, 251, 253, 296, 323, 331, 332, 339, 343, 344, 348, 359, 378

Kummer, Hans 192, 199

kyokon (sympathetic method) 52

La Ferrassie 1 227, 228

Laetoli 281, 360

Lagerstätten 264

Lagothrix 207, 274

de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste 15

landscape archeology 343, 344

language 369–71

   and anatomical modernity 309–10

   and intelligence 183–4

Last Glacial Maximum 91, 228

lateralization, cerebral 141

   and species-specific vocalizations in catarrhines 141, 181

latitudinal species gradient 100

Lazarus taxa 258

Le Gros Clark, W. E. 45, 46

   hominid status of australopithecines 45

Leakey, L. S. B. 48

Leakey, Mary 46, 48, 322

Lemur catta 6

Leontopithecus 207

Leontopithecus rosalia 129

leopard caches 165

Lepilemur 154

Lepomis gibbosus 218

leptin 143, 225–6, 360

Levallois technique 308

Limnopithecus 67

Limnopithecus legetet 67, 210–12

Linnaeus, Carolus 4, 34

locomotion, methods of studying 118–19

Lokalalei 323

longevity

   and body size 248

   and diet 229–30

Lorenz, Konrad 41, 335, 350

Lotka-Volterra 362

Lufengpithecus 69

Macaca 11, 12, 76, 101, 139, 313

Macaca fascicularis 28, 70

Macaca fuscata 27, 76, 197, 199, 223, 275, 276

Macaca mulatta 26, 42, 130, 139, 197, 230, 369

Macaca munzala 12, 243

Macaca nemestrina 70, 171

Macaca nigra 136

Macaca sylvanus 32, 33

Machiavellian intelligence 144, 153–4, 159, 164, 165, 167, 170, 175, 179, 182

   and emotional brain 172

   hindering natural history intelligence 161–2

   neural mechanisms controlling 175

macromutations (systemic mutations) 116

Makapansgat 269, 325

Malagasy prosimians 84–5, 119, 383

   dispersal to Madagascar 89

   extinctions 72, 99

   unique niches of 99

“Man the Hunter” 333–4, 336, 339

mass extinctions, see extinctions 255, 258, 260–1

   anthropogenic 95

   biotic responses after 260–1

   Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) 82, 83, 255, 260, 262, 382

   ecological patterns after 260, 261

   regional (local) extinctions 261

mating system(s) 304, 340–2

matrilines 144, 180, 186, 189, 248, 313, 316, 330, 371, 372

   competition between 186, 189, 190, 194, 195, 346, 371, 373, 374

maturation rates 251

   and diet 224–7, 230

   in fossil hominids 238, 337, 360, 372

Maynard Smith, John

   and game theory 191

   technology illuminates biology 161

Mayr, Ernst 19, 20, 86, 90, 115, 299

   and nature of the hominid niche 250, 293–8, 361, 362, 363

Meissner’s corpuscles 4, 6

menarche 143, 225–6, 244, 247, 360

Mendel, Gregor 17

   acceptance of Mendel’s work 17

mesomorphy 246

Mesopithecus 75

Messinian salinity crisis 77, 78

metabolic rate 54, 204–8, 213–15, 235, 241, 248, 278

   human sexual differences in 234

   resting metabolic rate, changes in twentieth century 221–2

metabolic syndrome, see “thrifty genotype” 224

Metasequoia 83

MHC (major histocompatibility complex) 189

Microcebus 63, 89, 207, 286

Microcebus myoxinus 206

microcephaly 221, 305

Micropithecus 67

Micropithecus clarki 67, 211–12

Miocene 59, 65–70, 72, 73, 76–80, 214, 313, 319, 322, 324, 328, 346, 348, 382, 385

   paleocommunities 67–8, 209–13

Miopithecus 207, 220

modeling human evolution 311–16

   baboon models 311–13

   “composite mammal” model 314–16

   conceptual model 183

    “Man the Hunter” 333–6

   referential and conceptual models 313–14

molar crown morphology 37, 73

   and genetics 111–12, 125–6, 300, 383

   convergent evolution of 206, 383

molecular clock 65, 257–8, 292

molecular systematics 64–5, 69, 82, 110–11, 139, 254, 257–8, 261–2, 302

Mongos mungo 315

monophyletic taxa 108

moral sense, origins of 192, 195

morality, natural basis for 196–7

Morotopithecus bishopi 66, 69, 142

morphological integration 109, 119, 361

morphology 107

   affected by behavior 276–7

   and evolutionary development 125, 283–6

   linking to genetics 111–12

morphospace 123–4

   and fossil species 123–4, 302–3

mosaic evolution 110, 142, 272, 284, 287

Mousterian Industry 309

mtDNA 65, 111, 115

Mus musculus 229

mutations 18, 112, 257–8

myosin mutation 305, 306

Napier, John R. 48, 312

Nasalis concolor 218

natural history intelligence 148–84, 293, 327, 346, 347, 348, 366–9, 371, 377, 379, 386–7

   and executive brain 172

   and novel neural systems in humans 175

   brain anatomy underlying 171–9

   defined and described 159–63

   different from Mithen’s concept 156–7

   documented from the archeological record 155–7

   evolution of, in humans 181–2

   hindered by Machiavellian intelligence 161–2

natural selection 13, 17, 41, 44, 53, 109, 146, 149, 157, 162, 163, 165, 170, 180, 181, 193, 196, 197, 198, 199, 218, 244, 256, 271, 275, 277, 287, 296, 309, 317, 319, 320, 333, 335, 336, 347, 350, 351, 362, 375, 377, 383, 385, 387

   and sociality 143, 145

   and variation between species 126

   alternatives to 20, 90, 256–7

   background to discovery of 13

   defined 16

   discovery of 15–16

   documentation of 19–20, 72

   intensity of, see phenotypic change, rates of 80, 81, 115, 116, 146, 148, 156, 352

   skepticism about 107, 115, 126, 196, 352

natural theology 15, 318

Neanderthal(s) 20, 23, 24, 50, 65, 123, 214, 227, 228, 309, 324

   body build in 227–9

   intelligence in 156, 309

   maturation rate in 238, 372

neonatal size and life history 247

nested clade analysis 113

neutral mutations 257

new archeology (middle range theory, processual archeology) 44

new physical anthropology 43–4, 333–4, 336

New World syndrome, the 223–4

niche(s)

   boundaries 248, 293–8, 300

   differences 250

   minimal separation of 72, 209–13, 300–1

   number of 298

   overlap 209–13, 300

   similarity (minimal threshold), see Hutchinsonian ratios 209–13, 300–1

   size 100

   specialization 100

   structure 297

niche differentiation (divergence) 70, 71, 72, 209–13, 293–303

   sympatry and 298–302, 303

Notharctus 37, 119, 120

nut-cracking

   in chimpanzees 168

     sexual differences in 168

   in tufted capuchins 168–70

   energetics of 168

Nycticebus coucang 179

Oberkassel 1 228

obesity 244, 245–6

   and post-industrial societies 222–4

OH 5 46, 47, 48, 49

OH 8 286

OH 62 237

Okote Member 331, 344

Oldowan Industry 48, 155, 179, 265, 322, 323–4, 348, 383

   age of and makers of 48–50, 322–3

   at Gona 323–4

   proto-Oldowan 328–9, 348, 386

Olduvai Gorge 46, 47, 48, 211–12, 286, 322, 344

Oligocene 63, 64, 216, 253, 346

Oligopithecidae, Family 64

Olorgesailie 75, 344, 362

omnivores, rarity of 250, 362

Omo hominids 49

omomyid(s) (Family Omomyidae) 62, 63

ontogeny 8, 38, 107, 124–6

optimization theory 118

orangutan(s)

   culture and tool behavior in 179, 324, 328, 347

   first field study of 194

   focus of Enlightenment thought 35

   intelligence of 136

   model of bipedal origins 275

   natural history intelligence in 179

   origins of 69

   two male morphs in 234

Oreopithecidae, Family 288

Oreopithecus 84, 377, 385

Oreopithecus bambolii 287–9

Origin of Species, The 16, 22

Orrorin tugenensis 78, 237, 280, 293, 296

Osteodontokeratic Culture 269, 325–6

Owen, Sir Richard

   debating Huxley 22, 36

   no fossil humans 317

   ontogenetic changes affecting taxonomy 36

   uniqueness of human brain 22, 36, 146

pair-bonding 271, 340–2, 356

Palaeopropithecus ingens 85, 106

Paleocene 8, 61, 72, 81–3, 216, 260, 318, 382

Paleocene/Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) 61–2, 83

paleocommunities 67–8, 69–70, 123, 267–9

   body size and reconstruction of 209–13

   Cretaceous North America 82

   early Tertiary 81–3, 260

   time-averaging and 266

   with no modern analogues 60, 106, 269

paleovegetation 67–8, 69–70, 73, 74, 78, 106, 260, 280, 288, 292

Pan paniscus 128, 171

   symbol use and abstract reasoning in captivity 171

Pan troglodytes 128, 226

   maturation rate in 226

Panda 328

Pandemonium dis 61

Panthera leo 185

Papio 93, 139

Papio anubis 102, 200, 225, 246, 282

Papio cynocephalus 185, 224, 246

Papio hamadryas 26, 33, 42, 43, 55, 171, 199, 246, 367

Papio papio 246

Papio ursinus 186, 189, 246

parallel speciation 218

“Paranthropus” 299

parapithecids (Family Parapithecidae) 64, 288

   distinctiveness of 64

Parapithecus 64

parasites

   and body size 187, 217, 248

   and invasive species 365, 383

   and primate sociality 188

   and social behavior 187–8

   sex-biased parasitism 217

paraphyletic taxa 108

parental investment 53, 194, 233, 247, 342, 372, 373, 376

Parkinson’s disease 177

penalty-free altruism 193, 316, 375, 387

petrosal bone 8

phenotypic change (evolutionary change), rates of 81, 148, 149, 174, 262–5, 351–2, 353

phenotypic plasticity 107, 126–7, 249, 351, 353, 361–5

   and speciation 218

   and species diagnosis 218

   climatic responses 220

   development constraining 127

   greater degree of, in behavior 202

   insular dwarfing 220–1

   rapid changes in body size 221–9, 351–2

   reversible changes in adults 218–19

   reversible changes in individuals 218–19

   seasonal changes in the brain 219

phenotypic variability 107, 126–7

philopatry 143, 144–5, 172, 190, 313, 316, 346, 371, 376, 378

Phoberomys 123

“phyletic gradualism” 256

phylogenetic constraints 123, 124, 201–2, 206, 313

phylogenetic inertia 201–2

Phylogenetic Systematics 108

phylogeny(ies) 107–15

   and the fossil record 110–11

   as the culmination of research 107

   comparison between cladistic and molecular phylogenies 110–11

   true phylogenies 108

   using behavior 112–13

Pierolapithecus catalaunicus 68, 69, 383

Piltdown hoax 46

   influences acceptance of australopithecines 46

Pima people 245

placentation 8

platyrrhine primates 122, 384

   and dispersal over water gaps 89–90

   body size in 207

   communities of 71

   dimorphism in 217

   evolution of 84

   inability to invade land 384

   prehensile tails in 89, 106

   speciation in 86–9

Pleistocene 51, 68, 123, 216, 228, 383

   body size reduction since end of 221

   climatic oscillations 77, 78, 84, 91, 228, 243, 264, 364

   discovery of 318

plesiadapoids (plesiadapiform primates) 3, 10, 59, 61, 81–3, 254, 383

   bulla formation 8

   feet of 25

   hands of 5

   niches of 61, 84, 382

   traits of 3–4

plesiomorphy(ies) 108

Pliocene 322

   Pliocene “Golden Age” 78

pliopithecids (Family Pliopithecidae) 69, 73, 74

Pliopithecus antiquus 317

Plio-Pleistocene 214, 254, 287, 292–3, 310, 313, 334, 337, 339, 342, 343, 344, 350, 356

polygenism 35

polyphyletic taxa 108

polyspecific associations 70, 71

Pondaungia 63

pongid(s) (Family Pongidae)

   and models of human evolution 22–5, 38, 271–5

   ancestors of 66

   captive research on 128, 140

   first discovery of 31, 33–4

   limb anatomy 285

   living pongids near extinction 13, 104, 132–3

Pongo pygmaeus 179, 234

population history and genetic variation 113, 310

population size 188

   limiting factors 143, 197–8, 314

     food major, in primate populations 197, 226, 316

post-orbital septum 7

precocial 314

predation, see sociality, influence of predation on 247, 347

   and body size 197–8, 247, 248

   and competition 261

   experiments with 364

   on early hominids 237–8, 347, 350

   on vervets 163–5

prehensile tails 88, 89, 106, 134, 274

premature birth 230

Presbytis entellus 26

Presbytis melalophos 70

Presbytis obscura 70

Presbytis potenziani 218

primate behavioral ecology 334

   “baboon Renaissance” 50–2

   early anecdotal evidence 24, 36

   ecology relatively neglected until 1980s 198–9

   field methodology 40

   in Japan 52–3

   incorporating sociobiology and ecology 53–4

   late appearance of 41

   pioneered by C. R. Carpenter 40–2

   research and publications declining in 137–8

primate brains

   and locomotor categories 173

   multivariate analysis of 173–4

primate deaths, cause of 380

primate evolution 382–4

   baboon evolution 93

   cercopithecoid radiation 73–6, 84, 101

   early catarrhines 61, 62–4

   Eocene euprimates 84, 115

   general shape and pattern of 57–62, 81, 254–5

   guenon radiation 91

   major features of 56, 84

   Malagasy prosimian radiation 84–5, 89

   Miocene hominoid extinctions 73–4

   Miocene hominoid radiation 65–70

   physical vs. biological triggers 56

   platyrrhine 84, 384

   plesiadapoid radiation 61, 81–3

primate extinction

   and bushmeat hunting 102, 105

   in the geological past 81–6

   living species 94–102, 106

   specific factors in 103

Primate Information Center 140

primate locomotion 8, 142, 385

   and brain anatomy 173

   fundamental primate traits 8

   locomotor costs 359

   origins of locomotor traits 8–11

primate order, the (Order Primates) 1, 13, 34

   body size 207

   brain anatomy and locomotion 173

   cerebellum 177

   classification 1–3

   definition 4–8, 24

   emphasis on vision 7

   face 6

   large body size 101

   molar teeth 8

   no keystone features 4

   number of living species 1

   postcranium 5–6

   reduced olfactory sense 6–7

primate origins 8, 10–11, 57, 59, 61, 82, 254–5, 262

primate speciation

   in living species 86–93, 94

   in the geological past 81–6

   Malagasy prosimians 84–5, 89

   parapatric speciation 85–6, 92–3

   potential for explosive speciation 90

   sympatric speciation 91–2

primate species 11–12

   expected number of 101–2

   extinctions in living 94–106

   impoverishment of 101–2

   in different habitats 97

   new species 12

   number of living species 12

primate subsistence

   scavenging garbage 104, 164, 200, 224

   seasonal variation in 223

primate taxonomy 11–12

   Huxley’s taxonomy 24

   phylogenetic species concept and 114

   problems with 11–12

   species-rich genera 12–13

   taxonomic inflation 114

primates

   as crop raiders 103–4, 164

   as large mammals 101, 206

   as scavengers of garbage 104, 164, 200, 224, 225

   bestial 29, 32

   concerns about biomedical research on 137

   disease risk of (pathogen exchange with humans) 132–3

   in non-Western cultures 26–8, 52

   in Western cultures 28–30

   kept as pets 133–4

   legal rights of 30

primatology

   anatomical 107–27

   antiquity and the Middle Ages 30–2

   early twentieth century 37–43

   history of 26–54

   in Japan 52–3

   incorporating sociobiology and ecology 53–4

   initiation of modern field studies 50–2

   nineteenth century 36–7

   Renaissance to the late eighteenth century 32–5

Principles of Geology 16, 319

Proconsul 66–8

Proconsul africanus 66, 67, 210–12, 213

Proconsul heseloni 210–12

Proconsul major 66, 67, 210–12, 213

Proconsul nyanzae 67, 210–12, 213

Proconsulidae, Family 66

Proconsuloidea, Superfamily 67

Prohylobates 73

Propliopithecidae, Family 64, 73

Prosimians (Prosimii) 1

   body size 101, 206, 207

   cerebellum size 177

   number of living species 12

   primate suborder 1

Proteopithecidae, Family 64

puberty, advent of, see menarche 224–7, 230

“pull of the recent” 254

punctuated equilibria 90, 126

   as alternative to natural selection 90, 256–7

   neglect by evolutionary biology 256–7

   pervasive influence in evolutionary anthropology 256

Purgatorius 8, 61, 82

quantum evolution 263

r 362, 363, 374

r-selection 360

radiations, see adaptive radiations

rainforest

   African 91

   anthropogenic loss 97–9, 187

   biomass in 102, 106

   earliest known 83

   forest canopy 102

   impoverished fossil record in 84

   liana structure differences 106

   loss of, affecting evolution 95

   Neotropical 86–9

Rangwapithecus 67

Rangwapithecus gordoni 67, 210–12

   critical role in inter-species competition 212

Rapoport’s rule 97, 100, 364

   tropical species and latitudinal range 96–7

rates of evolution, see phenotypic change, rates of 81, 148, 149, 174, 262–5

reciprocal altruism 190–1, 375

reciprocal illumination 108

reconciliation 185

recursion 369

Red Queen’s hypothesis 79

refugia 68, 91, 228, 383

reintroduction, species 129

Rensch’s rule 217, 233, 248, 304, 353, 354, 357, 358

repression of competition 193–4

reproduction

   affected by captivity 132

   suppression of 315

reproductive output 137, 204, 224–7

reproductive potential 137

reproductive research 139

   in catarrhines 143

reproductive strategies 53, 172, 194, 234

reproductive success 186, 199

   and body size 246–7, 249

   and diet 224–7, 230

retino-tectal system 4, 7

Rhesus blood group 139

rhinarium 6, 10

Robinson, John 49, 289, 300

   Robinson’s dietary hypothesis 213, 250, 298–9, 303

rock volume and fossil abundance 252

Rooneyia viejaensis 63

routed foraging 145, 344, 348

Saccharomyces cerevisiae 229

Saguinus 12, 70

Saguinus fuscicollis 71

Saguinus imperator 71

Saguinus mystax 187

Saguinus oedipus 369

Sahelanthropus tchadensis 78, 280, 292–3

Saimiri 139, 220

Saimiri oerstedii 5, 9

Salvelinus alpinus 218

Sambungmacan 3 308

Sangiran Dome 307

sarumawashi (monkey performance plays) 27, 276–7

Scala Naturae (Scale of Nature), see Great Chain of Being

scaphocephaly 305

scavenging by early hominids 165, 336–9, 340

   lack of, in olive baboons 200

Schaller, George 198

Schultz, Adolph 38, 39

   Asiatic Primate Expedition 40

   career of 38, 124–5

   early hominid sociality 311

   ontogeny and variability in primates 124–5

   view of hominid origins 39, 272

seasonality, adaptations to 243–5, 246

secular trend, the 221–4, 249

   in baboons 249

   invisible to archeology and paleontology 229

sediment deposition 263, 264–5

selection pressure, see natural selection

sentinel behavior 193, 290, 315, 316, 346, 347, 350, 371, 375, 376, 377, 379, 387

Serengeti ecosystem 79, 197

Serengeti-like grasslands 78, 91

   spread of 280

sex-ratio(s) 53, 172, 194

   operational 194

sexual dimorphism 69, 187, 216, 236, 271, 297, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 361, 376

   and Body Mass Index (BMI) 246

   and mortality during starvation 236

   and parasitism 217

   and primate social systems 217–18

   and social behavior 215–18, 234

   and species recognition in fossils 216–17

   and subcutaneous fat in humans 222, 233, 236, 244–5

   causes of reduction 234, 249

   in australopithecines 233, 303–4, 341–2

   in catarrhines 141

   in fossil species 215–17

   in humans 232, 233–4

   in hylobatids 233

   reduction of, in modern humans 234

   two male morphs in orangutans 234

   unrelated to human sexual selection or parental investment 233

sexual selection 16–17, 41, 56, 158, 187, 194, 213, 217, 233, 244, 341, 353, 361, 373

sexual skin 141, 213, 341

Shungura Formation 50

   Members E and F 322

Signor-Lipps effect 259

Simiolus 67

single-species hypothesis 293–8

sister species 108

“sites”, nature of 343–4

Sivapithecus 74

social cognition, see Machiavellian intelligence 153–4, 161, 164, 380

   convergent in humans and other primates 182

   not generating hominid intelligence 163–71

   not transferable to other spheres 162–3

   tests of, as generator of intelligence 179–80

social competition, primate 185–6, 194–5, 371

social organization 112

   in cercopithecoid monkeys 112, 163, 313, 316, 371

social roles 375, 378

sociality

   and diet and foraging behavior 198–9

   and low genetic relatedness 190

   and natural selection 143, 145

   and parasites 165, 187–8

   and predation 186

   advantages and disadvantages of 185–8

   catarrhine substrate for 194–5

   causes of, in primates 186–8

   causes of complex, in primates 194

   competitive, in primates 185–6, 189, 190

   generators of 189–94

sociality, hominid 216

   in early hominids 371–80, 387–8

   models for origin of 112, 311–16, 333–42

sociobiology 334

   attacks on 116–17, 196–7

   defined 53

Solo River 307, 308

speciation 11, 81–6, 87, 319, 352, 382–4

   and body size 85, 86, 93, 297

   and macromutations 116

   and mate recognition systems 86, 90–1

   and morphological variation 86, 93, 296–7

   and pathogen–host coevolution 86

   and the phylogenetic species concept 114

   allopatric 19, 80, 86–9

   centrifugal 90

   caused by natural selection 16

   chromosomal differences and 11, 92

   ecological 218

   in cladistic methodology 108

   in different habitats 262

   in living primates 86–92, 93, 94

   in the geological past 81–6

   modes of 19–20, 85, 86, 297

   parapatric 19, 85–6, 92–3, 297, 312

   peripatric 86, 90

   rates of, see phenotypic change, rates of 261

   sympatric 19, 91–2, 218

species, generalized vs. specialized 101, 218, 250, 361–5

species concepts

   and multiplication of species 114–15

   biological species concept 19, 81, 114

   mate recognition concept 90–1

   phylogenetic species concept 81, 114

   reflecting evolutionary processes 114

species, definitions of 19, 90–1

   in fossils 21, 81, 93

   parapatric species 19

   sympatric species 19

   taxonomy and recognition of 21

species diagnosis 111, 112, 126

   and phenotypic plasticity 218

   and the phylogenetic species concept 114

   in fossils 21, 81, 93, 112

species diversity 12–13, 75, 76

   and geographic area 94, 99

   factors promoting 72, 90–1, 93–4

   in the tropics 100

   loss of 95

   through geological time 252–5

species multiplication (taxonomic inflation) 114–15, 296–7

species persistence 105

   factors affecting 105

sperm competition 341

stable isotopes

   and diet of fossil species 123, 280, 299–300, 338, 350

   and diet of Holocene humans 232

   and ranging behavior of fossil species 338, 359

starvation 234–6, 245, 251

stereoscopic vision 7

Sterkfontein 286, 294, 295, 326, 327

stone tools, see archeological record, the

   at Gona 323–4

   first stereotyped 367

   oldest 150, 155, 158, 306, 321–4

   sites with oldest 322–3

StW 573 25, 286, 293, 327–8

subcutaneous fat

   and female reproduction 225–6, 244–5

   in humans 222, 236, 243–6, 249–50

Suncus etruscus 203

Suricata suricatta 193, 375

Swartkrans 178, 211–12, 269, 304, 326, 327, 368

sweating response 240, 249–50, 378

synapomorphy(ies) 108

Systema Naturae 4

Syzygium 69

Taï Forest 168, 328

tail loss 66–7

taphonomy, taphonomic processes 208, 264, 266–70, 326, 329, 343–4

   carnivore activity 269–70

tarsier(s) (Family Tarsiidae, tarsiiform primates) 1

   as prosimians 1

   distinctiveness and persistence of 62

Tarsius 62, 207

Tarsius eocaenus 62

Tarsius thailandicus 62

Taung 45, 46, 293, 337

taxonomy (classification systems)

   cladistic methodology, cladistics 107–15

   evolutionary systematics 109, 110

   transformed cladistics 109

teaching, active

   not present in termite-fishing 168

   rare in primates 162

technical intelligence 151, 162

Teloceras 265

termite eating 327, 330

   chimpanzee experiments 366–7

terrestriality

   and expectation of social complexity 194

   frequent in cercopithecoids 73, 74, 75

   some degree of, widespread in catarrhines 143

   terrestrial foraging rare in platyrrhines 169

   terrestrial specializations absent in platyrrhines 143

Theory of Mind 154, 179, 193, 348, 366, 367

   and autism 172

   and brain activity 172

Theropithecus 75, 76

Theropithecus gelada 312

“Think Tank”, the (U.S. National Zoo) 136, 140

“thrifty genotype” 223–4

thumbs, truly opposable 142

   not sole explanation for tool behavior 142

thylacine, extinction of 94

time-averaging 60, 265–6, 343

Tobias, Phillip V. 48, 237

tool behavior 35, 36, 48, 136, 140, 145, 149, 151–2, 153, 162, 179, 283, 303, 306, 321, 324, 328–9, 331, 335, 336, 338, 345, 347, 348, 366–9, 370, 379, 383, 385–6

   and brain activity 178–9

   and hominid origins 321

   and size of human cerebellum 176

   and thumb anatomy 142

   as human criterion 35, 36, 48, 151, 184

   catalytic effect on human evolution 151

   conspecifics inhibit, in captivity 168, 170

   human hand anatomy and 178

   impeded by social dynamics, in captivity 171

   in chimpanzees 366–7

   in learning enhanced primates 168

   in tufted capuchins 168–70

   in Williams’ syndrome 172

   no imitation of, in captivity 171

   origins of 179, 180

   sexual differences in, among chimpanzees 168

tooth size and scaling relationships 205–6

Tragedy of the Commons 193

transgenic animals 147–8

Tremacebus harringtoni 121, 122

trichromatic color vision 6, 7, 141

Trinil 307

Trivers, Robert 190

TRPC2 gene 6

Turkana (Turkana Basin, Lake Turkana) 49, 78, 80, 155, 238, 242, 251, 323, 331, 332, 339, 343, 348, 359, 378, 379

Turkana people 222

Turkanapithecus 67

Turkanapithecus kalakolensis 211–12

turnover pulse, see Vrba, E. 79–80, 258, 262

Tuttle, R. H. 274, 275, 281

Tyson, Edward 34, 36, 54

‘Ubeidiya 339

uniformitarianism 318–19

unpredictable environments 248

U.S.E.S.A. (United States Endangered Species Act) Red List 104

Vallesian Crisis 74

Van Valen, Leigh 79, 126, 363

variability selection 218, 250, 362

vertical clinging and leaping 8

Vesalius, Andreas 32, 54

Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation 13

Victoriapithecidae, Family 73

Victoriapithecus 73, 74

vigilance, antipredator 375

   impoverished in non-human primates 167–8

   in early hominids 238, 290, 347, 350, 377, 379, 385

vitalism 20

vomeronasal organ (Jacobson’s organ) 6–7, 10, 141

Vrba, Elisabeth 79

Wallace, Alfred Russel 15, 17, 19, 319

Washburn, Sherwood L. 46, 50, 51, 275, 321, 336, 339

   and baboon model for early hominid sociality 50–2, 311, 312

   Asiatic Primate Expedition 40

   catalytic effect of tool behavior on human evolution 151, 321

   knuckle-walking phase of human evolution 275

   “Man the Hunter” 333–4, 336

   new physical anthropology 43–4, 333–4, 336

weed species 105, 365

Williams, George 188

Williams’ syndrome 172, 184

   and tool behavior 172

Wilson, E. O. 53, 189, 342

“Woman the Gatherer” 336

Wright, Sewall 18

Wynn-Edwards, V. C. 188

X-linked color gene 7

Xanthorhysis tabrumi 62

Yale Anthropoid Experimental Station, Orange Park, Florida 40, 43, 128

Yerkes, Robert M. 30, 34, 37, 39–40, 43, 161, 368

   influence on primatology 39–40, 128

Zhoukoudian 307, 325

zoo design (enclosure design) 135–7

Zuckerman, Sir Solly

   denigrates field studies 42–3, 55

   influence on primatology 41, 42

   opposes hominid status of australopithecines 45

   pleased with 1470 specimen 49, 55

   The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes 42–