Index
absorptive capacity, 362, 737
Academic Consortium on International Trade (ACIT), 502
accelerator, 162, 737
ACIT. See Academic Consortium on International Trade
Adelman–Morris theory, 95, 186–187, 737
adjustment programs
IMF and, 568, 681
liberalization and, 3, 700. See also liberalization
political economy of, 683
poverty and, 209. See also poverty
reform and, 677. See also reforms
SDA and, 210
structural adjustment, 543, 737
World Bank and, 568, 677, 681
See also specific countries, programs
adverse selection, 494, 737
AEC. See African Economic Community
Africa
AGOA and, 625
annual growth in, 86–87
civil wars in, 19–20
colonialism and, 147
crisis in, 18
ECH and, 18, 682
education in, 204
GDP in, 18
green revolution and, 232
land redistribution, 248
MDG goals, 18
polygyny belt, 222
See specific programs, states, topics
Africa Live Data Base, 344
African Economic Community (AEC), 643
Afro-Asian relations, 57, 176, 657
Agency for International Development (AID), 21
aggregate models, 363
agriculture, 78, 128, 237
biotechnology, 264
Burfisher model, 628
capital investment and, 250
CGIAR and, 287, 288
China, 721
credit and, 251
development and, 223, 230
elasticity of supply and, 257
export crops, 237
farms. See farming
food and, 237. See food
grain imports, 237
green revolution. See green revolution
industry and, 99–100. See industrialization
innovations in, 54, 220. See also innovation
investment and, 135, 250
irrigation and, 255
labor force, 97, 262
land redistribution and, 246
LDCs and, 224, 226
mechanization and, 250–251
migration and. See migration
nonagricultural production, 253, 262, 313
output in, 97
peasants and. See peasant society
poor policies, 231
population growth and, 249–250
poverty and. See poverty
productivity in, 224
protective policy and, 628
reforms and, 246, 720
research in, 230, 287
retail enterprises and, 262
role of, 221
rural poverty and, 220–221
specialized farms, 227
subsistence farmers, 226
surplus labor from, 138
transformation in, 220
See also farming; specific topics, countries
aid programs, 65, 518, 520, 737
AID. See Agency for International Development
AIDS epidemic, 232, 324, 354, 355
air pollution, 428
Ake, Claude, 19
alcoholism, 191
Angola, 116
anti-globalization, 10, 502–503, 737
antidumping, 602
APEC. See Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation
apartheid, 37, 737
appropriate technology, 46, 326, 328, 378, 737
Argentina, 82, 640
arid lands, 432
Aristotle, 47
Arkwright frame, 125–126
Arrow, Kenneth, 121
ASEAN. See Association of South-East Asian Nations
Asian-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 571
Asian tigers, 24, 63, 67, 737–738
Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 67, 85, 620, 621, 737–738
asymmetric information, 494, 737
authoritarianism, 112, 234, 323, 400
automobiles, 23–27
backward linkages, 136, 738
Baker plan, 578
balance of payments, 505, 508
deficits, 508, 554
employment and, 601
equilibrium in, 678, 738
foreign aid and, 501
inflation and, 487
international aid, 501
merchandise trade, 487
stages in, 508
trade balances. See trade balances
balanced growth, 132–133, 135, 158, 161, 738
banking, 466–467
adverse selection, 494
banking systems, 466
capital flight, 555
crisis and, 558
debt cancellation, 573
financial crisis and, 551
fiscal planning and, 656
Islamic rules, 495
lending programs, 568, 573
moral hazard and, 494
risk premiums, 559
standards, 540
See specific organizations, topics
Baran model, 123–124, 142, 143–144, 158
Barro, Robert, 91
basic needs, 42, 738
growth and, 43
human rights and, 43
index of, 34
nutritional, 172. See also health
basis points, 560
Baumol, W. J., 88
benefit–cost analysis, 379, 383, 386
Berg report, 235
Berry, A., 247
Big Mac index, 31
big push thesis, 64, 133
bilateral flows, 510, 541
bilateral investment treaties (BITs), 531
biodiversity, 434, 435, 436
biotechnology, 264, 604
birth rate, 277
abortion and, 298
contraceptives and, 297
crude, 273
family-planning programs, 298
fertility and, 282, 297
modernization, 301
See also population
BITs. See bilateral investment treaties
Black Death, 277
black market, 30, 648
boomerang effect, 595–596
borderless economies, 65, 615, 737
Botswana, 145
bourgeoisie, 59, 158, 738
Brady plan, 579
brain drain, 348
brain gain, 523
Brazil, 82, 199
Bretton Woods system, 86, 738
Brown, L. R., 285
budget constraints, 712
buffer stocks, 627, 738
Bulgaria, 84
bureaucratization, 47
Bush administration, 572
Bushmen, 145
CACs. See collective action clauses
Cairncross, A. K., 130, 132, 362
call centers, 7
Canada, 77
capital
absorptive capacity, 362, 737
accumulation, 284–285, 367
agriculture and, 250
banking and, 555
capital accounts, 505
capital costs, 323
capital markets, 110, 493, 505, 556, 689, 739
capitalism. See capitalism
credit and, 203
flight of, 555, 556–557, 560
flows of, 545
formation, 2, 131, 150, 295
growth and, 362, 363
import, 505
income and, 367
increasing, 473
industry and. See industrialization
inflows, 504
interest rates and, 323
investment and, 361
labor and, 155
land and, 239
monopolies. See monopolies
movement of, 638
natural capital, 450–451
neoclassical model, 155
price of, 329
stock, 102
technology and, 102, 239
utilization rates, 329
See also capitalism
capital-intensive methods, 328, 379
capitalism, 22, 57, 60, 127, 402, 405, 739
feudalism and, 91
globalization and, 502
golden age of, 745
indicative plan, 689
neoclassical theory, 155
nomenklatura and, 708
origins of, 60
poverty and, 60
Protestantism and, 59, 93–94
See also capital
carbon dioxide (CO2), 102, 438, 439, 440
Cargill/Monsanto, 228
Carnegie, A., 404
cartels, 63, 416
Castro, F., 44, 524
catastrophe, 30
Catholic religion, 58–59, 403
causation, 110
CCL. See contingent credit lines
cellular phones, 372
CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons
CGIAR. See Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
chaebols, 67, 137, 739
Chenery-Strout models, 508
child labor, 606, 607
child mortality, 354
Chile, 698
China, 44, 55, 56, 700, 721
agricultural policies, 253–254, 721
banking reform, 730
civilization of, 64
Cultural Revolution, 72, 232, 253–254, 298, 327, 405, 408
decollectivization, 262, 733
Deng and, 72
famine in, 234
farm prices, 235
fast growers in, 82
FDI, 731
food production, 232, 234
GNI per capita, 24
Great Leap Forward, 234
growth experience, 72
India and, 232
individual economy in, 408, 722
industry in, 723, 726
inequality in investment, 729
international trade and, 730
Mao and, 71–72
market economy, 719
poverty, 729
reforms in, 235, 723, 727
socialism in, 71, 720
SOEs and, 699, 720, 728
Soviet Union and, 70–71, 260
transitions to market, 732
TVEs and, 720, 722
U.S. and, 25
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 438, 447
cholera, 353
church authority, 91
civil society, 112, 739
Clark, Gregory, 137
class divisions, 23–27
classical theory, 124, 161, 739
classification of development, 20, 21
clientelism, 19, 113, 116
climate, 434
Cline, W., 247
Clinton, W. J., 303
CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons
closed economy, 154
club convergence, 91
Club of Rome study, 287, 449
CO2. See carbon dioxide
Coase theorem, 423, 739
Cobb-Douglas model, 153
coffee market, 228
collective action clauses (CACs), 576
collective farms, 260
colonialism, 60, 145, 147, 231, 351, 401
Columbia School, 569
command economies, 363
commanding heights, 657
commercialization, 140, 227
commodities, 608, 626
common market, 643
commons, tragedy of, 427, 449
Commonwealth of Independent States, 111
communications technology, 375
communism, 22, 68
communes, 260
Communist party, 705
monopoly and, 705
Russian revolution, 92
Soviet Union and, 716
See also socialism
comparative advantage, 594, 596, 632
doctrine of, 592
foreign investment, 595
path dependence of, 603
trade, 592
comparison-resistant services, 30, 740
complete economic union, 643
computer technology, 344, 370, 373
ConAgra, 228
concessional loans, 209, 510
conditional convergence, 91
conditionality, 678
conservativism, 143, 149
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 287, 288
consumption
consumer sectors, 28–29, 712
CPI and, 478
demonstration effect, 132
income, 295
industry consumer goods, 71
inequality, 183
labor-intensive goods, 326
luxury components, 326, 603
contested markets, 64
contingent credit lines, 543
contingent valuation, 431
contraceptives, 297
contract farming, 228
contractionary polices, 681
convergence, 88
capital mobility, 155
club convergence, 91
conditional, 91
convergence controversy, 88
neoclassical model and, 88
Solow model, 155
unconditional, 91
coordination failure, 137
corporate conglomerates, 67
corruption, 112, 115, 199
cost–push inflation, 481, 482–483
costs, of growth, 47, 323
crawling peg, 485
creative destruction, 712–713
creativity, 323, 400
credit, 203, 204, 251, 494
crossnational data, 18, 52
crowding, 192
Cuba, 44
cummulative distribution function, 199
currency systems, 323, 554
appreciation and, 65
currency board, 485
decontrol and, 324
depreciation, 64, 555
devaluation and, 635
exchange rates, 642. See exchange rates
financial crises, 566, 639
overvaluation, 634, 711
See specific topics, nations
customs union, 643
Daly impossibility theorem, 450
data base, standards for, 166–167
Davos forums, 10, 741
death rates. See mortality rates
de Soto, H., 117
debts
Brady plan, 579
buybacks, 581
cancellation, 573
concerted action, 575
crisis, 552, 558, 560, 577
development swaps, 583
equity swaps, 581
exchanges, 580, 583
indicators of, 563
World Bank and, 741
See also specific programs, institutions, countries
defense budgets, 602
deficits, 508, 554. See trade balance
deforestation, 421
demand, 134, 600
demand–pull inflation, 480
demand side theory, 131
democratization, 18, 112, 113, 717, 741
demographic transition, 277, 282, 304
demonstration effect, 132
Deng Xiaoping, 72, 253–254, 262
dependency theory, 2, 60, 144, 158, 161, 292
depreciation, 64, 555
deregulation, 150–151, 158
devaluation, 635
developing countries
characteristics of, 95
developed countries and, 88, 89, 266, 603
use of term, 22
See specific countries, topics
development
agriculture, 223. See also agriculture
classification of, 20
defined, 15, 21–22, 655
disparity reduction rate, 35
divergence in, 89, 655
economic structure, 101
education and, 106. See education
evolutionary approach, 53
freedom and, 44
growth and, 15
historical perspective, 53
income and. See income
invention and, 368
liberation and, 44
measurement of, 15
O-ring theory, 137
planning and, 655
population and, 271, 284
research and, 368
theories of, 123
See also growth; specific countries, topics
dialectical materialism, 130
Diamond, J., 53
DICE model, 445
Dickens, C., 60
differentiation, of products, 599
diminishing returns, law of, 88, 124–125, 749–750
direct taxes, 469
dirigiste debate, 3, 657, 658
disability, 354, 712
disasters natural, 214
discount rate, 381
disease, 232, 281. See health; specific diseases
disparity reduction rate, 35
distance learning, 344
distributional weights, 384
diversity, 435. See also biodiversity
Doha Development Round, 622
dollar, U.S., 524, 555, 645
depreciation of, 555
dollarization, 640, 741–742
euro and, 645
exchange rate, 485
price of, 324
domestic savings, 150
domestic violence, 191
domesticated animals, 54
doubling time, in computing, 74
Douglas, P., 154
DRF. See Debt Reduction Facility
drugs, 633
Drummond, Ian, 130
dual economies, 103, 742
dumping, 602
duopoly profits of, 602
Dutch disease, 418, 419
Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 443, 445
EBRD. See European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ECA. See Economic Commission for Africa
ecology, 53
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), 18, 682
economies of scale, 259, 597
education, 42
brain drain, 348
child labor and, 607
computers and, 344
development and, 106
distance learning, 344
earning ability and, 338
education index, 37
educational policy, 329
elementary, 242, 337
gender and, 341
health and, 334
human capital and, 334
income and, 339
investment in, 66, 329, 337, 339, 360
labor and, 330, 345
literacy and. See literacy
noneconomic benefits of, 337
overeducation, 330
parental, 339
Ph.D. level, 348
planning in, 346
poverty and, 168–169, 339
primary, 338, 339
priorities in, 43
returns to, 335, 336, 360
screening effect, 338
secondary, 342
skill levels and, 242
specialized, 345
teleconferencing, 344
training, 345
unemployment, 324, 329
elasticity, of supply, 257
elderly, 196, 206
electric motor, 371
electronics, 2, 344, 370
elites, 143–144, 213
employment, 2, 308, 693
balance of payments and, 601
employment problems, 205, 309
general theory of, 320
income and, 320. See also income
industrialization and, 314
internal balance and, 680
labor. See labor force
endogenous technology, 137
energy, limits on, 290
Engels, Friedrich, 127, 322
Engel’s law, 742
engineering approach, 378
Enlightenment period, 59
Enterprise for the Americas Initiative (EAI), 583
entitlements, 233, 266, 290
entrepreneurs, 309, 398
achievement and, 399
civil service and, 402
defined, 393
developing countries and, 394
enterprise and, 473
functions of, 396
as gap-filler, 395
India and, 406
individual economy and, 722
industry and, 597
innovation and, 392, 393
Kilby model, 397
marginal individuals and, 403
monopoly and, 405, 709
motivation of, 399
multiple function, 399
organization, 392
promotion of, 647
Schumpeterian theory, 394
self-assessment, 399
technological mobilization, 407
trading background, 401
entropy, 451, 742
environment, 102, 288
defined, 414
degradation of, 716
market imperfections and, 422
natural resources and, 413, 414
policy failures, 422
pollution, 67, 420, 426, 438
population and, 582
trade and, 607
ERDF. See European Regional Development Fund
Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 284
Ethiopia, 192
Eurasian societies, 54
euro currency, 541, 546–547, 638, 645
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), 700
European Economic and Monetary Union, 546–547
European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), 77
European Union, 111, 700, 743
evolutionary approach, 53, 203
exchange rate, 65, 263, 633
Bretton Woods system, 86
crawling peg, 485
currency mismatch, 642
devaluation, 482
dollar. See dollar, U.S.
dual, 637
exchange controls, 558, 634
exchange costs, 321–322
exports and, 150
flexibilty and, 572
GNP and, 29
hedging and, 567
inflation targeting, 641
managed floating, 554, 641
poverty and, 257
present system, 633
prices and, 257, 594, 638
rate change, 258–259
reforms and, 689
stability and, 638
trade and, 689, 730
See also specific currencies, topics
expenditure policy, 477, 681
exponential growth, 77
exports
agriculture and, 237
bias against, 635
exchange rates and, 150
export expansion, 612
export purchasing power, 610
external balance and, 680
LDCs and, 104
liberalization and, 601
primary export earnings, 626
tariffs and, 614
terms of trade, 198
See also trade balances; specific topics, countries
extension services, 254, 328, 347–348
external debt, 64, 551, 552
external economies, 133, 383, 598
external equilibrium, 686
external shocks, 64
external stabilization, 485
factor endowment, 600
factor intensity, of commodities, 604–605
factor price distortions, 321, 328, 386
factor proportions theory, 594
failed states, 116, 117
families, 191
as entrepreneurs, 398
extended, 97
family-planning programs, 282, 298, 299, 304
farm families, 4
in United States, 4
famine, 234, 237
farming, 78, 97
collective, 259, 260, 261
communes, 260
contract, 228
cooperative, 259
cotton gin, 125–126
credit markets and, 251
domesticated animals and, 53–54
economies of scale and, 259
extension services, 254
farm households, 222, 223
farm prices, 66
fertilizer and, 256
green revolution and, 230–231. See green revolution
household responsibility system, 261–262
insecticides, 281, 289
marketing and, 256
mechanization of, 250–251, 252
multinational corporations and, 228
peasant farms, 226. See peasant society
poverty. See poverty
prices and, 629
private entities research, 255
productivity, 246, 248
property rights and, 249–250
rural services, 259
specialized, 227
state and, 259
storage and, 256
See also agriculture
FDI. See foreign direct investment
Fei–Ranis model, 140
Fel’dman model, 69, 665
Fertile Crescent, 54
fertility rates, 282, 297, 305
feudal economy, 58, 91, 126
financial crises, 494, 551, 566, 639. See also specific countries
Fisher index, 27
fishing, 238
food, 42
agriculture, 237. See agriculture
aid and, 520
average production, 229
China and, 232
deficits and, 230
distribution of, 290
entitlements and, 290
FAO and, 245, 246
fish, 238
food-for-work program, 208
FSI and, 230
grains, 238
hunger and, 245
income and, 194
India and, 232
meat and, 238
nutrition and, 290, 353
output and, 237
population and, 284, 285
research and, 287
technology and, 287
total world production, 237, 266
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 245, 246
food security index (FSI), 230
foreign aid, 501, 508, 511, 515, 517
foreign direct investment (FDI), 150, 501, 508, 528, 529, 530, 731
forward linkages, 136
Frank dependency approach, 145, 158
Franko, L. G., 62
free-market liberalism, 598
free riding, 448
free trade, 91, 502, 603, 643
Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), 645
Friedman, M., 149
FSI. See food security index
fundamentalists, 569
fungible aid, 522, 744
Furtado theory, 144, 158
G-7. See Group of Seven
G-8. See Group of Eight
G-10. See Group of Ten
Gandhi, Mahatma, 46
GATS. See General Agreements on Trade in Services
GATT. See General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade
GDI. See gender-related development index
GDP. See gross domestic product
gender effects, 38–39, 192, 195, 296, 341, 407, 744–745
General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 21, 622, 744–745
General Agreements on Trade in Services (GATS), 631
generalized system of tariff preferences (GSP), 21, 625
genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs), 265
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 264
genomics, 264
Genovese, E. D., 44
genuine progress indicator (GPI), 455, 745
geographic targeting, 208
Gini index, 19, 179, 181, 184, 745
global distance learning network, 344
global production networks (GPNs), 745
global public goods, 287, 515, 745
global warming, 437
globalization, 6, 185–186, 266, 501, 745
anti-globalization, 10, 502–503
capitalism and, 502. See capitalism
climate and, 437
competition and, 2, 615
defined, 501
environment and. See environment
free trade and, 502
GPNs, 745
labor costs, 606
middle classes and, 10
MNCs and, 228. See multinational corporations
polarization and, 503
production sharing, 615
public goods, 287, 515, 745
self-reliance and, 45
trade in services, 29
See also specific topics
GMOs. See genetically modified organisms
GNI. See gross national income
GNP. See gross domestic product
golden age, of growth, 79
Gorbachev, M., 71
GPNs. See global production networks
grains, 238. See also farming
Grameen Bank, 204
Great Depression, 369
Greece, 84
green markets, 745
green revolution, 66, 198, 206, 222, 230–231, 239, 256, 287, 288
green taxes, 444
greenhouse effect, 437, 438, 443
gross domestic product (GDP), 30
deflator, 478
growth in, 564
information technology and, 2
measurement errors, 33
purchasing power and, 33
world leaders in, 55
gross national income (GNI), 15
gross national produce (GNP), 745
catastrophe and, 30
developed countries and, 28–29
developing countries and, 29
exchange rate and, 29
GNI and, 15, 16
growth and, 75
household, 28
measurement errors, 33
modern growth and, 56
national-income data, 25
per capita, 467
PQLI indicators, 34
price level of, 25–26, 30
problems with, 25, 27, 33
production costs and, 28–29
purchasing power and, 30, 33
weighted indices for, 39
welfare and, 29, 30
Group of Eight (G-8), 746
Group of Seven (G-7), 80, 584, 746
Group of Ten (G-10), 746
growth, 123
Adelman–Morris theory, 737
ancient, 54
annual rates, 75
basic needs and, 43
capital formation and, 362. See capital
computing rates, 16
defined, 15
development and, 15
drive to maturity, 129
econometric studies of, 363
employment and. See employment
endogenous, 155
expectations and, 48
exponential, 77
external trade and, 507, 591
GNP and, 75
income and, 210, 737. See income
increase in inputs, 366
industry and. See industrialization
inflation and, 488. See inflation
knowledge and, 364
liberalization and, 591–592. See liberalization
limits to, 448
medieval, 54
modern, 56
neoclassical theory, 153
as normal condition, 128
poverty and, 165, 184, 185, 202, 212
R&D and, 157
rate of, 191
rationalism and, 47
redistribution and, 211
Rostow on, 128
saving and, 158
scientific method and, 47
sources of, 362
stages in, 128
staple theory, 626
takeoff stage, 128
technical progress and, 362, 364
trade and, 591
trickle-down theory, 211
See also specific topics, countries
GSP. See generalized system of tariff preferences
GURTs. See genetic use restriction technologies
Hagen theory, 132, 400
Hamilton, A., 597, 600
Handbook of Economic Growth (Aghion/Durlauf), 13
Hardin, G., 423, 427, 458
Harrigan, J., 151
Harris–Todaro model, 317, 318, 746
Harrod–Domar model, 153, 162, 163
hawala system, 526
Hayami–Ruttan model, 252
HDI. See human development index
health, 42
education and, 334
investment and, 324
nutrition and, 205, 353
pandemics and, 2
physical condition, 323
Heckscher–Ohlin theory, 594, 604
hedging, 567
Henry, J., 334
herding, 569
Heston, A., 72
Hicks, J. R., 363
highly indebted poor countries (HIPCs), 515–516, 585, 746
HIPCs. See highly indebted poor countries
Hirschman model, 135, 158
historical methods, 53, 126
HIV/AIDS epidemic, 280, 324, 354, 355
Hong Kong, 63
households, 191
developing countries and, 28
family and. See families
farms. See farming
GNP and, 28
modeling of, 360
peasants. See peasant society
responsibility system, 118, 261–262
survey data, 217–218
units of, 181
women and, 222
housing, 42
human capital, 154, 157, 334, 335, 360
human development index (HDI), 35, 38–39, 52, 91, 169, 746
human freedom index (HFI), 96
human poverty index (HPI), 76, 168
human rights, 43
Human Rights Watch, 116
humanism, 59
hunger, 245
Huntington, S., 96
IBRD. See World Bank
ICCC. See International Convention on Climate Change
ICT. See information and communications technology
ICU. See International Clearing Union
IDA. See International Development Association
IFPRI. See International Food Policy Research Institute
IIE. See Institute for International Economics
illegal cities, 117
ILO. See International Labor Organization
Imagine There’s No Country (Bhalla), 183
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
immigration, 605
immunization, 194
imperialism, 60, 123–124
imports, 258–259, 482
DC policies, 622
external balance and, 680
industrialization and, 613
protecting, 65
substitution, 258–259, 482, 612, 613, 678
terms of trade and, 198
impossibility theorem, 450
impossible trinity, 638
incentives, 473, 704
income
capital and, 367
consumption and, 295
demand and, 600
distribution of, 2, 179, 302, 472, 604
EAEH income, 28–29
earning ability, 338
education and, 339
employment and, 320
equality, 41, 210. See also income inequality
expected, 318
food and, 194
income-gap approach, 178
income tax, 469, 472, 477
inequality in. See income inequality
inflation and, 487
labor-intensive goods and, 326
life expectancy and, 280
national income model, 504
non-cash income, 167
policies on, 465, 485
poverty. See poverty
rural, 190, 245
stability of, 471
taxes and, 474, 477
terms of trade, 610
urban jobs, 318
U.S. and, 28, 190
wages. See wages
See also specific groups, countries
income inequality, 4, 165, 212
assessment of, 207–208
between-country, 165
data on, 165
developed countries and, 190
economic policies and, 202
Gini index, 181
income categories and, 188
income levels and, 202
inverted U-shaped curve, 95, 202
personal income distribution, 180
policies to reduce, 202
poverty, 171, 202. See poverty
rural, 239
variances in, 95
increasing returns to scale, 597
index of sustainable economic welfare (ISEW), 455
India, 57, 201, 372
affluence in, 6
Barga operation, 247
call centers, 7
capital cost in, 323
China and, 232
deindustrialization of, 145
democracy in, 201–202
entrepreneurs and, 406
farming in, 4, 6, 224
five-year plans, 70
food, 232
golden ages of, 8
ICT production, 8
individual firms and, 491
land reform, 247, 249
liberalization and, 202
Mahalanobis model, 69–70
monopoly rents, 491
Nehru and, 69–70
new industrial policy, 202
planning and, 659
poverty, 6, 173, 202
real incomes, 10
redistribution in, 249
software sector, 8
Soviet model and, 69
transportation costs, 5–7
indicative plans, 22, 665, 689
indirect taxes, 469
individualism, 59
indivisibilities, 133, 385
Indonesia, 67
agriculture in, 197
economic growth, 196
financial crisis, 197
Nigeria and, 196
nutritional levels, 197
poverty in, 197
rural credit program, 198
induced innovation model, 252
industrialization, 58, 65, 100, 134, 185–186
advanced industrial society, 47
agriculture and, 99–100
China and, 723
consumer goods and, 71
developing countries and, 98
employment and, 314
high-tech, 156
import substitution and, 613
industrial concentration ratios, 727
Industrial Revolution, 128, 186, 371, 401, 405
infant industries, 597
informal sector and, 328
investments in, 70
manufacturing employment, 313
migration and. See migration
poverty and, 60
reforms and, 723
rural areas and, 262
small-scale, 328
stages in, 128
takeoff and, 140
turning point in, 140
urbanization and, 311, 317
See also specific topics, countries
infant mortality, 34, 42, 194
inflation, 60, 64, 380, 465, 478, 481, 637
accelerated, 478
benefits of, 486
cost–push inflation, 481
costs of, 486
demand–pull inflation, 480, 741
distortions from, 712
dynamics of, 488
exchange rates and, 641
growth and, 488
income distribution and, 487
inflationary expectations, 483
interest rates and, 553
international balance and, 487
monetary inflation, 484
political inflation, 484
prices and, 471
ratchet inflation, 482
since 1970, 478
structural, 482
taxes and, 487
informal sector, 118
formal sectors and, 318
industry and, 328
labor force and, 322
manufacturing and, 102
information
cost of, 368
distorted, 709
sparsity of, 165
technical knowledge, 368
information and communications technology (ICT), 2, 6, 7, 77, 370, 604, 748
computers and, 370
electronics and, 370
expenditures and, 375
GDP and, 2
globalization and, 373
India and, 8
investment and, 361, 371
liberalization and, 7
productivity and, 369–371
infrastructure, 61, 133, 135
innovations, 156
agriculture and, 54
defined, 393
entrepreneurship and, 392
invention and, 368
research and, 368
sharing of, 54
stages in, 395
input–output analysis, 346, 367, 694, 695, 697, 703
insecticides, 281
Institute for International Economics (IIE), 181, 183, 569
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), 116
institutional wage, 140
institutions, 108
basic services, 111
democratization, 717
developing countries, 95
institutional failure, 106, 116
lack of, 714
provision of basic services, 111
rule of law and, 113–114
See also specific institutions, topics
integrated approach, 45
integrated pest management (IPT), 289
intellectural property rights (IPRs), 265, 632, 748
Inter-American Development Bank, 578
interest rates, 80, 321–322, 380
capital and, 323
inflation rate and, 553
negative real, 553, 712
intermediate goods, 29
intermediate technology, 46, 378
internal balances, 680, 686
internal instability, 601
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. See World Bank
International Clearing Union (ICU), 571
International Convention on Climate Change (ICCC), 447
International Development Association (IDA), 210, 520, 542, 564, 581, 748–749
International Financial Architecture, 571
International Financial Institution Advisory Commission, 572
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 289, 522
International Fund for Agricultural Development, 34, 230
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 222
International Labor Organization (ILO), 165, 186
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 149, 152, 542, 571, 678, 749
adjustment programs and, 568, 681
Baker plan, 578
Brandt report, 679
conditionality, 678
debt restructuring, 576
ECA and, 683
financial crises, 573
liberalization and, 544
policy cartel and, 10
Stiglitz on, 570
World Bank, 679
international trade, 104, 503, 591, 730. See specific topics, countries
Internet, 3, 372
intraindustry trade, 599–600
invention, 368
inverted U-shaped curve, 95
investment, 110, 501, 505
accelerator effect, 737
capital formation and, 361
closed economy and, 154
criteria for, 378, 455
factor price distortions, 386
fiscal incentives, 473
foreign investment and, 508
indivisibilities and, 385
information technology and, 361
investment rates and, 130
uncertainty and, 383
invisible hand doctrine, 124, 749
IPR. See intellectual property rights
IPT. See integrated pest management
Ireland, 76
iron, 321
iron law of wages, 125–126, 749
irrational exuberance, 569
irreversibility, 424
irrigation, 255
ISEW. See index of sustainable economic welfare
Islamic banking, 495
Japan, 45, 131, 567
borderless economy, 621, 737
capitalism in, 61
cartels and, 63
economic miracle, 63, 94
foreign aid, 515, 620
foreign trade policy, 62
golden age, 80
growth of, 74–76, 81
infrastructure in, 61
Iron Triangle, 110
Japanese model, 61
keiretsu system, 61–62, 567
Korea and, 66
labor productivity, 141
land reform, 247
late nineteenth century, 91
Lewis-Fei-Ranis model, 141
Meiji era, 61–62
Pakistan and, 593
rapid growth of, 221
Taiwan and, 66
World War I and, 141
yen, 65
zaibatsu, 61–62
Kalahari region, 145
keiretsu system, 61–62, 567
Keynes, J. M., 320, 571
Keynesian theory, 320, 570, 749
Khrushchev, Nikita, 70–71
kleptocracy, 749
knowledge as capital, 334, 364, 368
Kohli, A., 113
Korea
chaebol system, 67
competitiveness of, 65
educational investments, 66
government investment, 64
interest rates, 65
Japan and, 66
literacy index, 66
pollution and, 67
private conglomerates, 64
SOEs in, 64
takeoff and, 137
Korean–Taiwanese model, 63, 91–92
Kremer, M., 137
Kremer O-ring theory, 158
Krueger proposal, 573
Krugman, P., 76, 94
kulaks, 749
Kuznets curve, 187, 218, 749
Kuznets, Simon, 57, 186–187, 334
Kyoto Protocol, 287, 437, 443, 446, 448
labor force
agricultural, 97, 262
appropriate technology and, 328
brain drain, 348
dependency ratios, 294
education and, 330, 345
elasticities in, 141
factor price distortions, 321–322
formal sector, 322
globalization and, 606
growth of, 292, 311, 313
informal sector, 322
job rationing, 330
labor aristocracy, 322
labor participation rates, 71
labor standards, 43
learning curve, 366
manual work, 351
marginal workers, 315
maximum labor absorption, 378
middle class, 23–27, 187
monopsonistic markets, 350
population and, 294
productivity and, 314–315, 334, 366
skill level, 242, 605, 606
supply curve, 139, 141, 351
training of, 345
underutilized, 311
unemployment. See unemployment
unskilled, 107
urbanization and, 311
wages, 321–322, 328
women in, 312
labor-intensive methods, 321–322, 326, 378
laissez-faire policies, 64–65, 124, 286, 597
land
capital and, 239
Latin America abd, 239–242
natural resources, 414
poverty and, 246
property rights, 249
reform, 246, 247
sharecropping, 248
tenure system, 246
usufruct rights, 249
Laspeyres index, 26, 27
latifundios system, 146, 239–242
Latin America, 176, 239–242, 482
LDCs. See less developed countries
least developed countries (LLDCs), 23, 24, 749–750
Leninism, 69, 123–124, 142
Lenski study, 403
Leontief paradox, 594
less developed countries (LDCs), defined, 123, 529, 750
Lewis–Fei–Ranis model, 123–124, 138, 141, 158, 161, 750
Lewis model, 103, 138, 140, 158, 221, 317
Lewis, W. A., 15–16, 138
liberalization, 59, 151, 689, 717
adjustment and, 700
defined, 591, 750
democracy and, 149
exports, 601
financial, 324, 489
foreign exchange and, 601
growth and, 591–592
IMF and, 544
individual firms and, 491
information technology and, 7
international trade, 152, 591, 592
neoclassical theory and, 151–152
policy and, 733
programs for, 80
Soviet Union and, 717
World Bank and, 544
liberation, 44
LIBOR. See London Interbank Offered Rate
life expectancy, 34, 177–178, 244, 278–279, 280, 296, 324
lifeboat ethic, 458
limited wants theory, 351
limits-to-growth literature, 156, 286, 448
Lincoln, Abraham, 334
linkages, economic, 136
Lipset hypothesis, 114
Lipton, Michael, 243
literacy, 106, 195, 338
education and. See education
literacy index, 36, 48
unemployment and, 329
UPE and, 106
Little–Mirrlees model, 381, 387
LLDCs. See least developed countries
Lomé conventions, 625
London Club, 565
London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR), 559–560
Lorenz curve, 179
low income countries (LICs), 239, 518, 519, 523, 531
luxury consumption, 603
Maastricht Treaty, 638
MAC. See marginal abatement cost
macroeconomic cycles, 524
Maddison, A., 54
Mahalanobis model, 69–70
malaria, 281, 353
Malaysia, 67, 199, 621
male dominance, 191
Malthusian theory, 124, 271, 284, 305, 448
management responsibility system, 723
Mankiw debate, 632
manufacturing sector, 102, 129
Mao Zedong, 44, 69, 71–72, 127, 254, 719
Marcuse, H., 47
marginal damage function, 429
marginal individuals, 403
marginal product model, 349
marginal units, 315
marginal workers, 315
market, 718
market socialism, 71, 663
Marxism, 22, 44, 123, 127, 157, 243
dependency theory and, 158
historical materialism and, 126
neo-Marxist theory, 2, 60, 142
reserve army of the unemployed, 127
Rostow on, 130
unemployment and, 127
mass consumption, 129
materialism, 126
matriculas consulares cards, 526
maturity, drive to, 129
Mauritius, 85, 344
meat, 238
media, 112, 344, 370, 374
medieval period, 54
Meltzer Commission, 572
Mexico, 38, 116, 506, 698
microeconomic studies, 137
microenterprises, 203
middle class, 23–27, 187
Middle East, 176
middle-income countries, 35, 189
MIGA. See Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
migration, 206, 308
Harris–Todaro model, 317
Lewis model, 317
macroeconomic cycles and, 524
neoclassical theory and, 155
policies to reduce, 325
remittances and, 523
rural–urban, 243, 316, 331
village reclassification, 316
world rates, 523
military-industrial complex, 716
military spending, 29, 114
Mill, J. S., 112, 124
millennium development goals (MDGs), 16, 237, 622
mineral exports, 116
mixed economies, 405
mobile phones, 374
mobility, 404
modernization, 61, 96, 130, 186, 278–279, 301
monetary policy, 465, 466, 638
monopolies, 171, 368, 385, 599
communism and, 705
enterprise and, 405, 709
India and, 491
MNCs and. See multinational corporations
natural, 385–386
profits of, 602
public, 385–386
state and, 705
monopsonistic markets, 66, 350
monotonicity axiom, 179
Montreal Protocol, 287, 447
monuments, 132
Moore’s law, 373
moral hazard, 494
mortality rates, 34, 42, 194, 277, 712
decline in, 278
DRF and, 581
external, 565
modernization and, 278–279
natural resources and, 582, 741
restructuring, 576
service of, 552, 563
Mosley, P., 151
motivation, economic, 350, 399
multi-party systems, 114
multilateral aid, 446, 520, 542
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), 531
multinational corporations (MNCs), 147–148, 527, 535, 699
benefits of, 533, 537
costs of, 538
farming and, 228
foreign investment from, 534
globalization and, 228
LDC interests and, 539
technology transfer, 539
Mundell model, 486, 488
Murphy–Shleifer–Vishny model, 134
Myint, H., 132
Myrdal, G., 351
Mystery of Capital (de Soto), 117
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Association
nation-states, 59, 91
national income model, 452, 504
natural disasters, 214
natural resources, 423
as capital, 450–451
common property, 423
deterioration of, 452
environment and, 413, 414
importance of, 413
land and, 414
pollution and, 426
resource curse, 419–420
negative externalities, 299
Nehru, J., 69–70, 143
neo-Marxism, 2, 60, 142
neoclassical theory, 13, 124, 149, 153, 155, 156–157, 158
critique of, 151
defined, 751
liberalization and, 151–152
Washington consensus, 151
neopatrimonial rulers, 109
net investment, 129
net material product (NMP), 704
net national product (NNP), 129
net primary productivity (NPP), 451, 751–752
net transfers, 564
new growth theory, 155, 156, 161, 171
newly industrializing countries (NICs), 24, 25, 63, 65, 67, 600, 752
Newtonian theory, 124, 128, 130
NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations
Nigeria, 19, 50, 147–148, 196, 197, 224
nineteenth century, 57
Nkrumah, K., 263
NMP. See net material product
NNP. See net national product
nomenklatura system, 706, 708, 717, 752
non-cash income, 167
nonconcessional loans, 540
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 110, 287, 752
nonrenewable resources, 308–309
nontariff barriers (NTBs), 624
Nordhaus–Boyer model, 445
normal distribution, 182
North Africa, 176
North American family, 4
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 645
North, D. C., 108, 152
North Korea, 109
North–South interdependence, 503
Novartis/ADM, 228
NPP. See net primary productivity
NTBs. See nontariff barriers
nuclear families, 97
numeracy, 338
Nurkse, R., 133
nutrition, 165, 205, 290, 353
Nyerere, J. K., 23
O-ring theory, 137, 752
ODA. See official development assistance
OECD. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
official development assistance (ODA), 510, 511, 516
oil, 64, 116, 196, 198, 414, 415, 417, 449, 503
oligopolies, 385, 534
on-the-job training, 347
one-party systems, 114
OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Organization for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD), 149, 295–296, 374–376, 381, 416, 510, 522, 541, 543–544, 574, 752
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 23, 416, 627, 646, 752
outsourcing, 6, 7, 10, 632
overflow theory, 349, 350
ozone, 438
Paasche index, 26, 27
Pakistan, 85, 199, 593
PAMSCAD. See Program of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment
pandemics, 2
Papua New Guinea, 703
parasitic diseases, 360
parastatal enterprises, 752
Paris Club, 565, 752
partimonialism, 116
Patel, S. J., 79
patent protection, 633
patrimonialism, 19, 113
patron–client systems, 204
Pearson, L., 88
peasant society, 97, 226, 245, 266, 301. See also farming; poverty
Penn model, 31, 33
perestroika, 71, 752
perfect competition, 124
pesticides, 281, 288, 289
petroleum. See oil
pharmaceuticals, 633
Philippines, 85, 154
physical quality of life index (PQLI), 34, 752
piquetero movement, 309–316
planning
centralized, 661
duration of plans, 691
Fel’dman model, 665
goals of, 690
India and, 659
instruments of, 690
planning models, 692
Soviet model and, 658
Poland, 84, 718, 732
polarization, 503
policy cartel, 10, 586
policymaking state, 655
polio vaccine, 353
political systems, 95, 96, 107, 263. See specific topics, countries
pollution, 67, 420, 426, 438
polygyny, 222
population
age structure, 292, 305
congestion and, 6, 291
births. See birth rate
deaths. See mortality rates
development and, 271, 284
environmental problems and, 582
food and, 284, 285
iron law of wages, 125
labor force and, 294
mortality rates. See mortality rates
policies and, 325
population momentum, 284
population programs, 205
productivity and, 105
rapid growth of, 105
stationary, 284
wages and, 125
world, 271, 273
portfolio investment, 527
Porto Alegre conferences, 10, 753
potato-is-a-potato rule, 31
poverty, 3–4, 11–12, 165, 245
absolute, 171, 179, 194, 195, 737
adjustment programs and, 218
agricultural research and, 254
antipoverty programs, 206
capitalism and, 60
children and, 196
China and, 729
concepts of, 176
cultural relativity of, 171
data on, 166–167
defined, 171, 172, 178
education, 339
education and, 168–169
elasticity of, 17–18, 184
environmental stress and, 420
exchange rate and, 257
Gini index, 19
growth and, 60, 165, 184, 185, 202, 212
headcount approach, 178
income and. See income inequality
India and, 6, 173
industrialization and, 60
integrated war on, 208
land distribution and, 246
measures of, 176, 217–218
monotonicity axiom, 179
multidimensional, 167
$1/day poverty, 194, 195, 220
overstating, 16
policies to reduce, 202, 543
poverty index, 179
poverty-weighted index, 40
PRGF and, 543
regional rates, 174, 175
rich/poor gap, 3, 20–21
rural areas, 220, 222, 239, 245
seasonal, 245
target groups, 206–207
technology and, 252
$2/day poverty, 195
vicious circle theory, 131
war, 212
weak transfer axiom, 179
women and, 191
power loom, 125–126
power sources, 143–144, 252
PPP adjustments, 33
PQLI. See physical quality of life index
Prebisch–Singer thesis, 608, 609, 753
predatory regimes, 109
preferential trade arrangement, 642
PRI. See Institutional Revolutionary Party
prices
comparative advantage and, 593
decontrol, 150
elasticities, 133
exchange rate and, 257
farms and, 629
GNP deflator, 25–26
inflation and, 471
Laspeyres index, 26
Paasche index, 26
policies and, 257
price signals, 704
scarcity and, 710
stability of, 471
steel and, 593
textiles and, 593
trigger mechanisms, 625
unemployment and, 471
primary-product export, 104, 611, 626
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (Ricardo), 124
privatization, 150, 151, 677, 697, 707–708
benefit–cost calculations, 383
nomenklatura, 707–708
pitfalls of, 698
private sector and, 692, 699, 700
shadow prices and, 387
product cycle model, 595
product differentiation, 599
productivity
agricultural, 224
differences in, 334
ICT and, 369–370, 371
importance of, 361
labor and, 334, 366
population, 105
production function, 153, 308
productivity paradox, 370
technical progress and, 362
professional training, 345
Program of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment (PAMSCAD), 210
progressive income tax structure, 469
progressive tax, 473
proletariat, 127
promarket arguments, 661
property rights, 117, 121, 150–151
farm and, 249–250
IPR and, 632
land distribution and, 249
long-term, 409
secure, 249
protective tariffs, 65, 136, 244, 598–599
Protestant ethic, 58–59, 93–94, 402, 403
protesters, 309–316
public enterprises, 553, 690, 692, 695, 699
public expenditures, 150, 469, 700
public goods, 424, 434, 690
Public Law 480 (U.S.), 521
public monopolies, 386
public works projects, 262
purchasing power, 2, 30, 33, 753
QWERTY keyboard, 603
ratchet inflation, 482
rationalism, 47, 59
real appreciation, 636
real economic growth, 16
real exchange rate (RER), 258–259, 636
recession, 465
reforms, 677, 707–708
adjustment and, 714
agricultural, 720
capital market and, 689
China and, 723, 727
exchange rate and, 689
industrial, 723
shock therapy, 703–704
SOEs and, 728
Soviet Union and, 704
trade and, 689
regional integration, 642
regional trade organizations (RTOs), 644, 645
Reichel model, 37
reinvestment, 386
relative deprivation, 213
religion, 47, 303
remittances, 508, 523
renewable resources, 414
rent seeking, 113, 115, 121, 122
replacement rate, 284
RER. See real exchange rate
rescheduling debt, 585
R&D programs, 369, 604
basic research, 368
development and, 368
growth and, 157
innovation and, 368. See innovation
investment in, 157
technology and, 157, 206. See also technology
resource allocation theory, 360, 472
returns to scale, 597
revolutions, political, 60
Ricardian model, 124–125, 157, 182
rights, 233
rigid factor proportions, 315
Rio summit, 443, 445
risk, 382, 559
Rodrik, D., 64
Roemer model, 418
rolling plan, 691
Romer, P., 89
Rosenstein-Rodan, P. N., 133
Rostow model, 68, 123, 128, 130, 157, 161, 756
RTOs. See regional trade organization
rules of origin, 643
ruling elites, 213
rural areas, 78
agriculture. See agriculture
development, 223
electrification, 85
farms. See farming
formal sectors, 318
income in, 190, 239, 245
industry and, 262
informal sector, 318
migration from, 243, 316, 325, 331
peasants. See peasant society
population, 220. See population
poverty and, 220, 222, 239, 245. See poverty
Rural Credit Program, 198, 223
rural cultivators, 97
rural society, 222
rural–urban differentials, 224
schooling, 242
services in, 259
unemployment and, 325
vulnerability of, 245
women and, 192
See also specific countries, topics
Sachs proposal, 573
Sachs–Warner approach, 591
SADC. See Southern African Development Community
Salam, A., 349
sales tax, 472
San-speaking peoples, 145
sanitation, 42
SARS. See severe acute respiratory syndrome
Saudi Arabia, 85
savings, 131, 150, 295, 386, 694
adjusted net, 737
closed economy and, 154, 158, 195
Lewis on, 138–139
neoclassical theory and, 158
personal saving, 132
rates of, 102
sustainability and, 453
scale, returns to, 597
scarcity, and prices, 710
scarcity of resources, 43
schooling. See education
Schultz, T. W., 154, 367
Schumacher, E. F., 46, 378
Schumpeter models, 13, 161, 393, 394
scientific method, 47
SDA. See Social Dimensions of Adjustment Projects
SDRs. See special drawing rights
second world, 22
sectoral adjustment loans (SECALs), 568
Seers, D., 11, 16
seigniorage, 490
self-assessment, 399
self-reliance, 45, 323
self-sustained growth, 140
self-targeting, 208
Sen, A. K., 45, 176, 233
services sector, 100, 715
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 72
shadow prices, 387
shantytowns, 117
sharecropping, 248
Shleifer, Andrei, 134
shock therapy, 702, 703
shocks, external, 64
Sierra Leone, 204, 212
Silicon Valley, 7–8, 156
Simon, J., 286
Singapore, 63
skill levels, 242, 605
slavery, 44
small markets, 132
Small-Scale Enterprise Credit Program, 203
Smith, A., 124, 149, 597
social benefit–cost analysis, 379, 383, 387
social capital, 112, 121
social democracy, 22
Social Dimensions of Adjustment Projects (SDA), 210
social goods, 467–468
social origins, 404
social profitability, 136, 366
social security, 329
socialism, 68, 127, 143, 192, 260
Afro-Asia and, 657
China and, 720
market socialism, 71, 663
motivation socialization, 350
ODA countries, 510
Poland and, 718
second world and, 22
socialist economies, 22, 405, 407
socialist governments, 22, 127, 704
worker-managed, 664
socio-cultural dualism, 351
socioeconomic development, 301
SOEs. See state-owned enterprises
soft budget constraint, 657, 712–713
soil degradation, 421, 433
Solow model, 153, 154, 155, 370
South Africa, 37, 192
South Commission, 23, 44
South Korea, 63, 183, 247
Southern African Development Community (SADC), 533
Soviet Investment Model, 70
Soviet Union/Russia, 22, 144, 700
China and, 70–71, 260, 704
collapse of trade, 716
communism and, 716
controlling plan, 658–659
decollectivized, 733
decontrol and, 708
development model, 68, 70
Fel’dman–Stalin plan, 69
GDP, real, 702
Gorbachev and, 71
inflation in, 703
Khrushchev and, 70–71
liberalization and, 717
nomenklatura and, 717
perestroika and, 71
planning and, 658
reform, 704
Russian revolution, 144
Soviet collapse, 71
Stalinist model, 68, 69, 755
transitions to the market, 732
Yeltsin and, 71
special drawing rights (SDRs), 633–634, 755
specialization, 128, 603, 632
spinning jenny, 125–126
sports, 368
squatters, 117
Sri Lanka, 201
stabilization, 677, 683
Stages of Economic Growth (Rostow), 128
stagflation, 465
stagnation, 124
Stalinist model, 68, 69, 755
standard deviation, 182, 739
staple theory, 626
Starbucks, 31
state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 742, 756
China and, 720, 728
definition of, 691
importance of, 691
public enterprises and, 691, 699
reform and, 728
stationary economy, 394
statistics, 11–12
steam engine, 125–126
steel, 321
sterilization, 298
Stiglitz, J., 112, 152, 366
Stiglitz–Sachs school, 569
Stolper–Samuelson theorem, 604
structural adjustment, 543, 568, 737
structural economists, 483, 682, 756
sub-Saharan Africa, 171, 195, 204, 211, 686
AIDS and, 280, 355
average food production, 229
effectiveness of aid, 516
food deficits, 230
food output, 266–267
income growth, 355
India and, 230–231
institutional failures, 231
leading debtors from, 566
net transfers, 564
rural poor, 223
urban areas, 356
subjective well-being, 46
subsidies, 206
subsistence farming, 226–227, 266
subsistence levels, 284–285
substitution, 315, 612
suburbanization, 129
Summers, R., 72
superior–subordinate system, 204
supply side theory, 131
surplus, 60, 125
sustainability, 102, 413, 453, 455
Swedish International Development Agency, 685
Taiwan, 63
interest rates, 65
investment and, 64
Japan and, 66
land reform, 247
pollution and, 67
takeoff and, 137
takeoff, 128, 130, 137, 140, 756
Tanzania, 260
targeting, 207, 208, 691
tariffs, 244, 472, 596, 597, 614
taxes, 713
administrative feasibility, 474
cascade tax, 475
collection of, 475
direct taxes, 469
elastic, 469
goals of, 468
incentives, 244
income and, 469, 472, 477
indirect, 469
inflation and, 487
political constraints, 476
ratios, 467
revenue and, 468
sales tax, 472
value-added tax, 472, 475
Taylor, C., 109
technology, 2, 347, 367
appropriate technology, 737
borrowed, 65, 372, 598
capital investment and, 102, 239
creativity and, 400
Cultural Revolution, 327
endogenous, 156, 751–752
entrepreneurs and, 407
food and, 287
growth and, 171, 362, 364, 751–752
ICT and, 361
inadequate, 102
innovation and, 252
Malthus on, 284–285
natural resources and, 309
poverty and, 252
price weights for, 27
productivity and, 362
progress and, 715
R&D and, 157, 206
skills and, 347
technical knowledge, 309, 367
unsuitability of, 321
See also specific topics, technologies
telecommunications, 2, 7, 372, 376
teleconferencing, 344
terms of trade, 198, 608, 610, 611
TFP. See total factor productivity
Thailand, 67, 85–86
theory, defined, 123
Theory of Social Change (Hagen), 400
third world, defined, 22, 756
time lapse, in estimates, 699
total factor productivity (TFP), 71, 361, 370, 757
township and village enterprises (TVEs), 720, 722, 757
Toye, J., 151
tractorization, of farming, 252
trade balances, 415, 689, 738
comparative advantage, 592
deficits and, 415, 508, 554, 619, 738
environment and, 607
exchange rate and, 689
growth and, 591
intra-industry, 599
trade barriers, 25
trade creation, 644
trade diversion, 644
trade in services, 630
trade-related intellectual property (TRIPS), 633
traditional societies, 102, 130
tragedy of the commons, 423, 427, 458
training, 204, 345. See also education
transaction costs, 425
transfers, 206
transformation, in agriculture, 220
transitional economies, 23, 407
transparency, 112
Transparency International, 122
transport costs, 256
trigger price mechanisms, 625
Trinidad terms, 584
TRIPs. See trade-related intellectual property
tropical climates, 433, 446. See specific countries
Trotsky, L., 659
Turnkey projects, 540
TVEs. See township and village enterprises
ujamaa socialism, 260
UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 22, 516–517, 626–627, 686, 757
UN Development Program (UNDP), 35, 39, 52, 96, 149, 168
unbalanced growth, 132–133, 135, 136
uncertainty, 382, 383
unconditional convergence, 91
underdeveloped countries, 145
underutilized labor, 311
unemployment, 205
causes of, 321
disguised, 314, 331
education and, 324, 329
labor force and, 292, 314, 321, 325
policies for reducing, 325
prices and, 471
rural–urban migration and, 325
underemployment, 310
western approaches to, 319
UNICEF, 194
United Kingdom, 55
United States
Bush administration, 299
capital inflows to, 546
China and, 25
Declaration of Independence, 43
dollar, 64, 65, 635, 645, 646. See also specific topics
dollar. See dollar, U.S.
electrification and, 371
extension services, 255
foreign aid and, 65, 511
gender and, 407
GNP of, 49
HPI and, 76
IMF and, 544
income differences, 28
incomes in, 90–91, 190
living conditions in, 77–78
as a model, 76
ninteenth century and, 77
North American family, 4
ODA and, 511
OPEC and, 646
Public Law 480, 521
recipients of aid, 514
social mobility, 404
trade agreements, 645
trade deficits, 619
trigger price mechanisms, 625
twentieth century and, 77
See also specific topics, organizations
urbanization, 58, 308
congestion and, 291
defined, 243
formal sectors and, 318
forms of, 243
income and, 318
industrialization and, 311, 317
informal sector, 318
labor force and, 138–139, 311
living conditions, 79
policies of, 243
rural areas and, 318
schooling and, 242
Uruguay Round, 624
user rights, 424
Usher model, 32–33
usufruct rights, 249
UV radiation, 438
value-added tax (VAT), 111, 469, 472, 475
variance, 182
variation, coefficient of, 739
Venice, 55
vertical integration, 534
vicious circle theory, 123, 131, 158, 161
villages, 316
Vishny, R., 134
vocational education, 347
von Hayek, L., 149
wages, 606
efficiency wage, 379
income and, 379. See income
iron law of, 125
labor and, 321–322, 328
population and, 125
prices and, 322
skill level and, 605
Wagner’s law, 468
Wallerstein, I., 161
war, 117, 132, 212
Washington consensus, 151, 152, 161
water, 42, 194, 255, 420, 428, 429
Watt, J., 370
weak transfer axiom, 179
wealth-sharing, 66
Weber, Max, 59, 93–94, 116, 402, 403
welfare programs, 29
Western economic thought, 2
WHO. See World Health Organization
Williamson, J., 31
Wilson, E. O., 436
women, 39
commercialization and, 227
eudcation of, 341
female-headed households, 195
female to male ratio, 192, 193
GDI and, 38–39, 744–745
gender differences, 38–39, 192, 195, 296, 341, 407, 744–745
household, 222
income of, 192, 195
labor force and, 192, 312
life expectancy, 296
“missing” women, 192
poverty and, 191
role of, 303
rural economy and, 192
worker-managed socialism, 664
World Bank, 1, 51, 94, 149, 152, 173, 178, 181, 183, 542, 758–759
adjustment programs, 568, 681
Annan proposal, 586
basic needs and, 42
classification of development, 21
consumption inequality, 183
debt reduction facility, 741
ECA and, 683
educational resources, 344
green national accounts system, 102
growth rate used by, 16
HIPCs and, 586, 746
IMF and, 679
interest subsidies, 677
laissez-faire theory and, 64
liberalization and, 544
policy cartel, 10
programs of, 51
world development indicators, 51
World Economic Forum (Davos), 10, 741, 758–759
World Food Program, 290
World Health Organization (WHO), 194, 324
World Links, 344
World Social Forum, 10, 753
World Trade Organization (WTO), 21, 25, 111, 622, 759
World War I, 56–57, 141, 142
World War II, 81, 92
Yamamura, K., 63
Yeltsin, B., 71
yen, 65
Yew thesis, 18
Yugoslavia, 664
zaibatsu system, 61–62
Zaire, 557
Zapatista army, 38
zero marginal productivity, 314–315
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