Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World

Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World

Cambridge University Press
9780521858687 - Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World - by Adam J. Silverstein
Index

Index

a secretis, (Latin term for ‘bearer of secrets’; see also: rāzbān), 38

Abbasid Revolution, and the Umayyad Barīd, 86–7

ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd ibn Yaḥyā, 85

ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān, 42, 53, 59, 60–1, 82, 117

ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Yazīd, 71

Abraha, 46

Abū al-ʿIyāl, 56

Abū Tammām, 107

Achaemenids, postal system, 9–11

ʿAdiyy ibn Zayd, 19, 48

ʿAḍud al-Dawla, 132, 134–5

Afshīn, 192

agentes in rebus, 32, 36–8, 42, 67, 72

Aḥīqar, 22

Aḥmad ibn Abī Duʾād, 90

ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Khaljī, 50

ʿAlī ibn ʿĪsā, 112

ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad: see under ‘Zanj’

ʿAlī al-Riḍā, 83

Alp Arslān, 136, 187

ʿAlqama al-Faḥl, 44

Amarna, Tell al-, 168

ʿāmil al-kharāj, 101

Amīn, Muḥammad ibn Hārūn al-, 65–6, 88

angaria (or Greek angareion; Iranian term for ‘postal tax’), 10, 24–5, 27, 34

angels, 19, 138

Anṣarī, 167, 172–3, 176–7

Apollonius of Tyana, 143

Arabia (pre-Umayyad):

   communications in, 42–51, 55

   use of two couriers in, 45–6, 55, 79, 84, 178

   imperial postal systems in, 47–9, 84, 145

Arabians, (pre-Umayyad) as spies for pre-Islamic empires, 49

Ardashīr I (Sasanid ruler, r. 224–41), 8, 178

ʿArīb al-Qurṭubī, 106

Aristotle, 139

Aršam letters, 16

ʿAskarī, 54

askudār, 127, 135

aspinj (or Aramaic ušpīzā, Soghdian arspanj; Iranian term for a ‘postal station’), 17

Augustus (Roman Emperor, r. 23 BCE – 14 CE), 30, 39

aural signalling, 26, 63

awwanā (Iranian term for ‘way-station’), 16, 48

Ayman ibn Khuraym, 56

Ayyubids, 169

ʿAzīz, al-, 122

Bābak, 63, 82

Babylonian Talmud, 20, 24, 27, 28

Bahrām IV (Sasanid ruler, r. 388–99), 18

Balādhurī, 46, 69

bandits, 13, 86, 158

barīd, etymology, 8, 28, 29, 46, 47, 48

barīd, as a measure of distance, 16, 93–4

Barīdī family, 129

Barmakids (see also: Yaḥyā ibn Jaʿfar, Yaḥyā ibn Khālid), 74, 88

Barqūq, 180

barrišdama, (Elamite term for ‘elite guides’), 20

bashīr, 43–4, 55

Batu, 147, 150

Baybars al-Bunduqdārī, 123, 164, 165, 170, 172, 173, 175

Baybars al-Manṣūrī, 172

beacons: see under ‘Optical signalling’

Bosworth, C. E., 126

Bridia, C. de, 149–50, 192

Buddha, 137

Bulliet, R., 33

bundār, 64, 77, 83, 88, 103, 127

Bundārī, 136, 187

Buyids, postal system, 131–6, 188

Byzantium:

   Barīd operations in, 62, 82

   couriers (see also: agentes in rebus; frumentarii; veredarii), 35–8

   Muslims using postal system, 98–9

   postal administration, 38–42

   postal infrastructure, 32–5, 38

   station-masters, 39–40

Caelius Aurelianus, 70

Cairo Geniza, 46, 115, 124–5, 167

camels, replace wheeled vehicles in the Near East, 33–4, 143, 188, 189

camels, replace other postal mounts (see also: ‘jammāzāt’), 112–13, 188

Carpini, John Pian de, 149, 150–1

Chaghadai, 147

Chʾang Chʾun, 145, 146

China:

   Great Wall, 76

   ‘Ministry of Posts’, 109

   Muslims using postal system, 98

   perishables transported by post, 81see also: ‘Yi’

Chinggis Khān, 141–2, 144–6, 148

Chronicon Paschale, 35, 38

Clavijo, Ruy González de, 162–3

coinage, of postal chiefs, 73

Confucius, 138

conquests:

   early Islamic, 3–4, 49–51, 145, 148, 189–90

   Mongol, 3–4, 50, 141, 145, 148–9, 153, 189–90

   Ottoman, 3, 164

Constitution of Medina, 45

courier-guides (see also: parwānag, furāniq), 17, 20, 36, 162, 173, 183

Crusades, 137, 179, 187

Ctesias, 13

Cursus Clabularis, 31, 33, 35, 41, 54

Cursus Publicus, 29–42, 47, 67, 84, 109, 191

Cursus Velox, 31, 54, 56

Cyrus (Achaemenid ruler, r. 559–529 BCE), 9, 21

Daniel, Book of, 28

Darius (Achaemenid ruler, r. 521–485 BCE), 8

darughachī, 156, 159

dawādār, 172

deaths of dignitaries, reported by the Barīd, 78–9

Delhi Sultanate, 162, 163–4, 166

dīdabān (Persian term for ‘watchman’), 23, 63, 88, 139

Diocletian (Roman Emperor, r. 284–305), 32, 36, 155

Diodorus Siculus, 13, 25, 26, 27

disguise, rulers travelling in, 23

distances between postal stations, 34–5, 94

divine surveillance, 138

Dīwān al-Barīd, 40, 73, 74, 77, 89, 102–3, 125, 127, 172

   administration of, 99–109

   Buyid, 135, 188

   creation of, 90–1

   funding of, 109–10

   infrastructure, 92–9

   uniqueness of, 109–11

Dīwān al-Kharāj, and the Barīd, 100–1

Dīwān al-Tartīb, 123

Dīwastī, 75

Eblaite Tablets, 117

Elad, A., 60

‘elements’, etymology of, 188

Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, Epic of, 117, 186

envoys (see also: ‘īlchī’), 41, 117–18, 120, 141, 149, 154, 160, 162, 192

escorts, see under: ‘courier-guides’

Esther, Book of, 10–11, 12, 18, 38, 69

eunuchs, 67, 74, 109, 112, 121

evectiones (Latin term for ‘postal warrants’), 31, 40, 59

‘eyes and ears’, 21–3, 85, 86, 140, 177

Ezra, 13–15

Faḍl and Marʿūsh, 133, 160, 191

Faḍl ibn Aḥmad al-Isfarāʾinī, 128

Fārābī, 138, 139, 140

Farazdaq, 44, 66

Fatimids, 115, 121–5, 168, 178, 188

Fatimids, and merchant postal networks, 123–5

Fatimids, use of pigeon-couriers, 122–3, 178, 189

fayj, 11, 48, 77, 120, 124, 133, 139, 160

flatulence, of postmasters, 108

frēstag (Middle Persian term for ‘angel’), 19

frumentarii (Latin term for ‘couriers’), 32, 36–8

furāniq (Arabic term for ‘courier-guide’), 20, 47, 64, 70, 72, 77, 86, 97, 102, 173

Gardīzī, 8

Gazagnadou, D., 165

Geikhatu, 159

general population, 25, 39, 76–7, 85, 104, 131, 151, 152, 155, 157, 158, 162, 175, 189

Ghazālī, 139

Ghāzān Khān, 153, 155, 157–61, 189

Ghaznavids, 115, 129–31

Gog and Magog, 90

Goitein, S.D., 123

governors, and the Barīd, 75–6, 85

Güyüg, 150, 151

Hādī, Mūsā al-, 66

Hadrian (Roman Emperor, r. 117–38), 39

Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, 163

Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf, 74–5, 82

Ḥākim, al-, 115, 123

Ḥamza al-Iṣfahānī, 8, 111

Ḥaram Documents, 183–4

Ḥarīrī, 115

Ḥārith ibn Surayj, 80

Hārūn ibn Yaḥyā, 99

Hārūn al-Rashīd, 12, 53, 73, 88, 113

Hendy, M.F., 35

Herodotus, 10, 12, 15, 98, 191

Hilāl al-Ṣābi’, 104, 107, 114

Hirsch, S.W., 21, 22

Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, 61, 69, 77, 78–9, 82, 85–6, 191

homosexuality, of postmasters, 108

Horace, 145

Hudhayl, dīwān of, 44

Hülegü, 149, 153, 154, 156

Ibn al-Ashʿath, 50, 68

Ibn al-Athīr, 168

Ibn Bassām, 107

Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, 163–4

Ibn ʿEzrā, 11

Ibn al-Furāt, 112

Ibn Ḥawqal, 127–8

Ibn Hishām, 44

Ibn al-Jawzī, 119

Ibn Jīʿān, 179

Ibn Khaldūn, 180

Ibn Khurradādhbih, 64, 89, 91, 93, 94–7, 107, 127, 170, 192

Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ, 85

Ibn al-Qadīm, 121

Ibn Qutayba, 46

Ibn Sīnā, 139

Ibn Taghribirdī, 133

Ibn al-Ṭiqṭaqā, 54, 69, 157

Ibn Wahb al-Kātib, 115

Ibrāhīm ibn ʿAbdallāh, 70

iggereth (Aramaic term for ‘letter’), 27

Ikhwān al-Ṣafā’, 138

Īl-khānids, 144, 153–7, 183

īlchī, 145, 147, 151, 158, 162

Imruʾ al-Qays, 47, 70

intelligence chiefs, see under: Ṣāḥib al-akhbār

Iran (pre-Islamic):

   distances between way-stations, 16, 98

   official envoys, 17–18

   messengers, 17–20

   postal administration, 26–8

   postal mounts, 24–5

   postal system, 7–28

   postmaster, 28

   spies, 20–3

Isaiah, 19

Isidore of Charax, 13, 64, 135

Ismāʿīlīs, 136, 187

Iṣṭakhrī, 135

Ītākh, 90, 105

jahābidha, 111

Jahāngir (Mughal Sultan, r. 1605–27), 81

Jāḥiẓ, 48, 77–8, 87, 187

Jahshiyārī, 60, 104

jammāzāt, 66, 112–13, 116, 125, 132, 191

Jarrāḥ ibn ʿAbdallāh, 75, 85

Jawdhar, 121

Jawhar al-Rūmī, 122

Jayhānī, 127

jaysh, etymology of, 86

John of Cori, 161

John Lydus, 39

Joseph, 44, 117

Julius Caesar, 30

Justinian (Byzantine Emperor, r. 527–65), 33, 35, 39, 41

Juwaynī, 145, 157

Kalachuris of Karnataka, 140

Kashghārī, Maḥmūd, 121

Kay Qāʾūs ibn Iskandar, 117, 131

khān, 16

kharīṭat al-mawsim, 106–7

khāṣṣakiyya, 169, 174, 182

Khusrô I (Sasanid ruler, r. 531–79), 22, 28, 41, 49

Khusrô II (Sasanid ruler, r. 590–628), 24, 28, 45

Khwārazm-shāh, 141

Khwārazmī, Abū ʿAbdallāh, 126–7

Kitāb al-Aghānī, 118

Kutadgu Bilig, 120

kutub al-tujjār, 118–20, 124, 193

Lambton, A. K. S., 155

lean horses (khayl muḍammara), as postal mounts, 63, 68–9, 78, 85, 88, 187

Leo (Byzantine Emperor, r. 457–74), 33, 37

Letter of Tansar, 22

Levanoni, A., 182

Logothete of the Drome, 36, 40, 109

Luṭfī Pāshā, 109–10, 164

Magister Officiorum (or: ‘Master of Offices’), 36, 40, 42, 74

magistrianoi (Latin for ‘the Master’s men’), 37, 67

Mahdī, al- (Abbasid caliph, r. 775–85), 53, 61, 62, 73, 192

Mahdī, al- (Fatimid ruler), 121

mail-bags, 7, 26, 63, 66, 68, 70, 73, 74, 83, 94, 97, 103, 104, 106, 135

Mālik ibn Nuwayra, 48

Maʾmūn, 65–6, 81, 83, 88, 122, 187, 191

Mamluk Barīd, 94, 162, 164, 165–85

   caliphal pedigree, 170

   creation, 167–70

   functions, 175–6

   funding, 173–6, 181–2, 184

   infrastructure, 173, 174, 175, 181–2

   mounted couriers, 169, 188

   military character, 170–3, 180

   optical signals used in, 176–7

   origins, 165–6, 175, 185

   pigeons used in, 176, 177, 189

Mankajūr, 80

mansiones (Latin term for ‘resting-stations’), 31, 32, 35, 98

Manṣūr, Abū Jaʿfar al-, 65, 67, 70, 72–3, 87, 117, 187

Maqrīzī, 123, 167, 172, 173, 174, 175, 180, 184

marathon, 133

Marco Polo, 160, 163, 164, 191

marḥala, 93–4

Maʾrib Dam, see under: Abraha

Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam, 59, 60

Marwanids, postal infrastructure, 60–1

masālik wa mamālik genre, 5

Masʿūdī, 28, 59, 87, 108, 132, 187

mawālī, 67, 108

Māwardī, 115–16

Maymūn ibn Ibrāhīm, 108

medicines, transported by the Barīd, 66

Medieval Europe, postal systems in, 123, 190

‘Memphite Theology’, 139

meraglīm (Hebrew term for ‘spies’), 19

merchants, and postal systems, 93, 116–21, 141, 151, 152, 159 (see also: kutub al-tujjār)

Michael Psellus, 33

miḥna, 83–4

miles (Latin: mille passus; Arabic mīl): 16, 93–4

milestones, 16, 33, 60, 61, 84, 138, 161

military operations, Barīd used in, 82–3, 99

Mishna, 25

Miskawayh, 134–5

Mitra, 138

modern postal systems (as distinct from pre-modern ones), 1–2

Möngke, 151–2, 155

Mongols (see also: ‘Conquests, Mongol’; ‘Īl-khānids’):

   climate, influence of, 148–9, 150, 153, 154

   disintegration of Empire, 152–3

   European travellers to, 149–51

   imperial administration, creation of, 141–2, 144

   postal system, see under: Yām

   taxation, 155–6

mounts, of the Abbasid Barīd, 111–13

Muʿāwiya, 30, 42, 46, 53, 54–6, 74

Muhallabī, 121

Muḥammad, 16, 144–5

Muḥammad al-Saffār, 190, 191

Muʿizz al-Dawla, 132, 133

Muqaddasī, 91, 127, 135

Musaylima, 46

mushrif, 38, 114, 125, 126, 129

Musil, A., 45

Mustaʿīn, al-, 103, 105

Muʿtaḍid, al-, 90, 100, 114, 117

Muʿtamid, al-, 92

Mutammim ibn Nuwayra, 48

Muʿtaṣim, al-, 26, 63, 82, 88–9

Muʿtazz, al-, 108, 114

mutationes (Latin term for ‘relay-stations’), 31, 32, 35, 98

Mutawakkil, al-, 90, 105, 106, 111, 114

Muthaqqib al-ʿAbdī, 48

Muzarrid ibn Ḍirār, 48

Nabonidus, 170

Narshakhī, 126

Nāṣir, al-, 115

Nāṣir-i Khusraw, 181

Nāṣir Muḥammad, al-, 172, 179–80, 181, 184

Neḥemiah, 15

neighbouring countries, postal systems of, 97–9

Nerva (Roman Emperor, r. 96–8), 39

newspapers, 1–2

Niẓām al-Mulk, 130–1, 133, 135, 136–7, 191

notarii, 36, 37, 72

Nūr al-Dīn, 168

Odoric, 161

Ögödei, 146–8, 151, 155

Olbricht, P., 143

Öljeitü, 66, 160–1, 192

optical signalling, 25–6, 61, 106, 176–7

ortaq, 155

Ottomans, 2, 109–10, 162, 164, 166, 167, 183

pāʾiza (Persianised Mongol term for ‘courier’s tablet of authority’), 142, 143, 151, 152, 159, 165, 173

paper, 91, 188

papyri, 50–1, 58–9, 68, 70, 71–4, 76, 84, 91, 123

parasang (Arabic: farsakh), 16, 93–4

Parthian Stations: see under ‘Isidore of Charax’

parwānag (Middle Persian term for ‘courier guide’; see also ‘parwwwanqā’ and ‘furāniq’), 20, 36, 70, 86

pax mongolica, 149, 151

payg (Middle Persian term for ‘courier’; see also ‘fayj’, ‘paykān’), 19, 160

paykān, 130, 160, 163, 191

Pegolotti, Francesco, 161

perishables, transported via the postal system, 81–2, 134, 164, 181, 187, 191

Persepolis Fortification Tablets (= PF), 12, 15, 18, 20, 27

philosophers, use postal metaphors, 137–40

Phocas (Byzantine Emperor, r. 602–10), 35

pigeons, homing, 113–14, 116, 132, 168, 177, 188

pilgrims, 36, 58

pirradaziš (Elamite term for ‘express courier’), 18

plague, 182

Pliny, 69

Praetorian Prefect, 36, 40

prisoners, transported by the Barīd, 98

private postal systems, 2, 93, 106, 114, 116, 124 (see also: ‘Merchants’)

Procopius, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 117, 191

Ptolemaic Egypt, 103

punishment, for postal delays, 134

Qāʾim, al-, 121

qāḍīs, 72, 106, 158

Qajar Iran, 20, 44, 66, 76

Qalqashandī, 133, 166, 173, 175, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184

Qarāmiṭa, 111, 113, 114, 132

Qubilai Khān, 153, 159

Qudāma ibn Jaʿfar, 93, 94, 99, 102–3, 192

Qurʾān, 48, 138, 140

Qurra ibn Sharīk, 67, 71–2

Rāfiʿ ibn Harthama, 112

Ragheb, Y., 113

rāhdār, 86

Rashī, 10, 11

Rashīd al-Dīn, 148, 151, 155, 157–8, 159, 161

raṣṣīm (Hebrew term for ‘couriers’), 11, 18, 38, 124

rāzbān (Persian term for ‘bearer of secrets’), 38

rebellions, reported by the Barīd, 79–80

rebels (see also: ‘Bandits’):

   transported via postal system, 57, 81

   disrupt postal system, 61, 65, 80–1, 87, 92–3, 107, 177–8, 186

   traced by the Barīd, 75

   use pigeon-couriers, 114

ribāṭ, 47, 48, 131

Richards, D. S., 183

risāla mughalghala, 44–5, 47, 55, 84

‘Royal Road’, 12–13

r.s.l. (Arabic root), 7, 138

Rubruck, William of, 145, 149, 150

runners, 24, 68, 78, 88, 133–4, 160, 163, 169, 183, 188, 192

Saʿadiya Gaon, 18

safīr, 122

Ṣāḥib al-akhbār (or al-khabar), 114–15, 127, 128, 130, 136, 138

Ṣāḥib al-Barīd (pl. aṣḥāb al-barīd):

   Umayyad, 70, 75, 84

   Abbasid, 62, 65, 67, 79–80, 118, 125, 126, 172

   according to Siyāsat al-Mulūk, 97, 101, 103–8

   according to Qudāma, 102

   compared with the Mushrif, 116

   Samanid, 125, 127, 128

   Ghaznavid, 125, 128, 129, 130

   according to Niẓām al-Mulk, 137

   used metaphorically, 139

Ṣāḥib Dīwān al-Barīd, 90, 99, 102, 103, 123

Ṣāḥib Dīwān al-Kharāj, 100–1

Ṣāḥib al-ḥaras, 65

Ṣāḥib khabar al-ʿaskar, 82, 114

Ṣāḥib al-Maʿūna, 101

Ṣāḥib al-Shurṭa, 73

Saʿīd ibn al-ʿĀṣ, 44, 47

safety along roads, 13–15

Samanids, 125–8

Samaritans, 26, 107, 178

Sauvaget, J., 165, 166, 167, 178

Sebüktigin, 128–9

Secret History of the Mongols, 146, 147, 151

Seljuks, 115, 131, 136–7

Seljuks, lack of a postal system, 136–7, 169

Seven Sleepers, 90

Shahid, I., 49

ShāhNāma, 17–18, 23, 24, 25, 28

Shāh Rukh, 163

Shāpūr II (Sasanid ruler, r. 309–79), 25

Sharaf al-Dawla (Uqaylid amīr), 115

Sharaf al-Dawla (Buyid ruler), 134

shuʿūbiyya, 4, 29

signet ring, for the postal system, 28, 74

Sikandar Lodi, 187

sikka, 47, 64, 93–8

Silk Road, 149

Siyāsat al-Mulūk, 87, 97, 99–102, 103–4, 107, 112, 118, 133, 134, 187, 191

slave-soldiers, 89, 99, 113, 169, 172, 184

Solomon, 61

sources, 4–6, 49, 57–8, 71, 91, 144, 145, 154, 155, 166–7, 189

speed of:

   Achaemenid postal system, 13, 191

   Barīd, 66, 81–2, 97, 107, 191, 192

   Buyid couriers, 133, 134, 135, 191, 192

   Cursus Publicus, 31, 191

   Ghaznavid couriers, 130

   homing pigeons, 168

   Mamluk Barīd, 176

   merchant postal networks, 119, 193

   Mongol runners, 160, 192

   Umayyad couriers, 57–8

stathmoi (Greek term for ‘postal stations’), 32

stations, of postal system, see under: ‘stathmoi’; ‘sikka’; awwanā

stirrups, 188

Subkī, 181, 183

Suetonius, 30

Sukkoth (‘Feast of Tabernacles’), 47

Sulaymān ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, 61, 76

Sulaymān the Merchant, 98

Sun Tzu, 5

Sykes, Ella, 7

Ṭabarī, 8, 18, 44, 46, 50, 62, 63, 69, 87, 119, 187

Ṭāhir ibn al-Ḥusayn, 80, 118, 126, 129

tail-docking, as postal badge, 8, 47, 63, 68–9, 88, 173, 187

Tamīm ibn Baḥr, 97–8

Tanūkhī, 100, 120

Targum, 19

taxi, 2

Taxis family, 2

telegraph, 2

Thaʿālibī, 8, 68

The Art of War: see under ‘Sun Tzu’

Theodore of Sykeon, 35

Theodosius II (Byzantine Emperor, r. 408–50), 37

thiqāt, 18

Tīmūr, 162–3, 184, 185

ūlāq, see under: ‘Ottomans’

Ullmann, M., 47

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, 51

ʿUmar ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz, 61, 62, 68, 77, 81, 117, 189

ʿUmarī, 53, 54, 88, 122, 131, 165–6, 170, 173, 174–5, 181, 187

unpopularity of postal systems (see also: ‘General population’), 32, 36, 39

ʿUtbī, 107

ʿUthmān ibn al-Ḥuwayrith, 47

Varuna, 138

veredarius (Latin term for ‘postal courier’), 32, 36, 38, 46

veredus (Latin term for ‘post-horse’), 29, 31, 48

Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, 53, 54, 59, 61, 71, 73

Walīd ibn Yazīd, 65, 78–9, 87

Wang Yangming, 107

Waṣṣāf, 155, 159

water, communication by, 41, 78

Wāthiq, al-, 64, 89, 90

women, as couriers, 65, 174

Xenophon, 9, 15, 20, 21

Xerxes I (Achaemenid ruler, r. 486–465 BCE), 10

Yaḥyā ibn Jaʿfar al-Barmakī, 73, 88, 103

Yaḥyā ibn Khālid al-Barmakī, 53

Yām, 141–64

   administration, 152–3, 159–60

   compared with the Chinese Yi, 142–4

   costs, 155–6

   creation, 144–8

   in China, 159, 160

   legacy, 161–4

   routes, 154–5, 159, 161

Yām, etymology of, 142–3

yamchī, 162

Yaʿqūb ibn Killis, 122

Yaʿqūbī, 107

Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī, 8, 117

Yazīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik, 76, 117

Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiya, 56, 57

Yazīd ibn al-Muhallab, 76

Yi (Chinese postal system), 141, 142–4, 163

Yūsuf Khāṣṣ Ḥājib, 120

Ẓāhir, al-, 123

Zanj, 92, 110, 111, 132

Ziyād ibn Abīhi, 55, 56, 57, 65, 74–5

Zuṭṭ, 63, 82

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