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2 Spaniards brought the Chinese to California in the sixteenth century and Filipinos arrived in Louisiana during the eighteenth century. In the late eighteenth century, Asian Indians arrived as indentured servants and slaves. See Timothy P. Fong, The Contemporary Asian American Experience: Beyond the Model Minority (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), 10; and Harry H. L. Kitano and Roger Daniels, Asian Americans: Emerging Minorities, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995), 83.Google Scholar

3 Yung, Judy “Chinese,“ in A Nation of Peoples: A Sourcebook on America's Multicultural Heritage ed. Robert Barkan, Elliott (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 119–122; Wong, Morrison G., “Chinese Americans,” in Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues ed. Pyong Gap Min (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 1995), 59; Fong, The Contemporary Asian American Experience, 11.Google Scholar

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7 Hing, Bill Ong Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993), 29; Tamura, Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity, 18, 20.Google Scholar

8 For a discussion of how the practice of picture-brides derived from traditional Japanese marriage practices, see Tamura, “Japanese,” 312–313.Google Scholar

9 Tamura, Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity, 79.Google Scholar

10 Pyong Gap Min, “Korean Americans,” in Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues ed. Pyong Gap Min (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 1995), 200–202; Fong, The Contemporary Asian American Experience, 13.Google Scholar

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13 Tamura, Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity, 5.Google Scholar

14 Ibid., 27–28.Google Scholar

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16 Tamura, Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity, 78.Google Scholar

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23 United States Census Bureau, “Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000,” American FactFinder, www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html, revised January 29, 2002, downloaded March 10, 2002; Larry H. Shinagawa, “The Impact of Immigration on the Demography of Asian Pacific Americans,” in Reframing the Immigration Debate, ed. Bill Ong Hing and Ronald Lee (Los Angeles: LEAP and UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1996), 61.Google Scholar

24 Tape v. Hurley, 66 California 473 (1885); Victor Low, The Unimpressible Race: A Century of Educational Struggle by the Chinese in San Francisco (San Francisco: East/West Publishing, 1982), 60–73; Charles M. Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1885–1915 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 28–43.Google Scholar

25 Asian Americans also went to court to challenge discrimination in non-schooling issues. For a discussion of the struggle to become naturalized American citizens, see Ichioka, The Issei, 210–226. For a discussion of the challenge to discriminatory land laws, see ibid., 153–56, 226–43; and Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988), 141–47.Google Scholar

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27 The scholarly literature on the incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II is massive. Those less familiar with this history might begin with publications such as Roger Daniels, Prisoners without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); idem, Concentration Camps: North America, Japanese in the United States and Canada During World War II (Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 1993); Jeffery F. Burton, Mary M. Farrell, Florence B. Lord, and Richard W. Lord, Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites (Tucson, AZ: Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, 1999); and Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied (Washington, D.C. and Seattle: The Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press, 1997).Google Scholar

28 Okihiro, Gary Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994), 151, 155, 175.Google Scholar

29 Tamura, Eileen H. “Asian Americans in the History of Education: An Historiographical Essay,“ History of Education Quarterly 41 (Spring 2001): 58–71.Google Scholar