In this examination of New Zealand entrepreneurship in the period 1840 to 1990, we document the origins of New Zealand entrepreneurs, and explore the differences between New Zealand, UK, and United States entrepreneurial history. Historical data is further analysed to depict the rise of alternative entrepreneurial growth strategies and the evolution of industry and financing structures, unique to the New Zealand business environment.

This paper presents a suggested framework for future research designs to examine the benefits of entrepreneurship, both non-financial and financial. Based on a review of the literature and using contextual exemplars throughout the paper with an Australia and New Zealand focus, we identify a range of benefits from entrepreneurship at the various levels of analysis (e.g. individual, organizational, national). From a non-financial perspective such benefits include independence, autonomy, competitive advantage, increased market share, employment and increased standards of living. From a financial perspective, entrepreneurships benefits include enhanced remuneration or rent from revenue, profits, cash flow, return on investment and increases in GDP – specific financial measures to be expressed in clear financial terms. The suggested framework represents both an initial step towards the measurement of entrepreneurships financial benefits and a valuable starting point for the development of a theory of the non-financial and financial benefits of entrepreneurship.

Research on entrepreneurship focuses predominantly on success which ignores the high failure rate of new ventures and precludes a holistic view of the entrepreneurial process. The current study addresses failure by asking three research questions: how do entrepreneurs experience failure, how do they cope with it, and what do they learn from it? Rich interview data is analyzed using multiple frameworks from the literature. Findings suggest that more coping and learning occurs in the economic aspect of failed entrepreneurs' lives in comparison to the social, psychological and physiological aspects. Findings also provide a proposition for testing in future research: Type of coping engaged in by failing entrepreneurs is related to the kind of learning experienced through failure.

This paper provides a better understanding of the motivational incentives driving franchising choice from the female franchisee's perspective. A qualitative methodology was adopted in this research to gain a clearer picture of the salient issues influencing female entrepreneurs' evaluations of alternative business models when making the self-employment decision. A sample of 14 female franchisees and 12 female independent business owners was interviewed to gather data on the reasons supporting a woman's initial decision to enter self-employment. Major contrasts have been identified between female franchisees and independent business owners suggesting that franchisors need to re-design their selection strategies and communication methods to promote female participation, sustain system wide growth and add creative diversity in franchise systems that have limited growth potential due to the lack suitable franchisees.

The Tall Poppy Syndrome (TPS) of knocking high achievers is often described as being ingrained in New Zealand's culture. This study interviews 40 entrepreneurs to explore how TPS impacts on entrepreneurs. Internationally, New Zealand is considered to be a highly entrepreneurial country. Thus TPS and an entrepreneurial culture appear to co-exist. Over half of the participants had experienced TPS in their role as entrepreneurs and their individual strategies for managing its impact included 'staying under the radar', not telling people they owned a business and not ‘flaunting’ their wealth. This study suggests that the effects of TPS may have significant implications for entrepreneurship in New Zealand. Firstly, TPS may discourage entrepreneurs from starting a business. Secondly, people who have experienced a business failure may be reluctant to establish another business because of the public reaction to their 'fall'. Finally, entrepreneurs may deliberately limit business growth because they don't want to attract attention. Potential ways of reducing the impact of TPS on entrepreneurs include celebrating entrepreneurial success more visibly, highlighting realistic role models for people to aspire to and emphasising the hard work and risk that entrepreneurs take to achieve success.

In order to understand the characteristics of bioentrepreneurs, this paper seeks to identify the entrepreneurial types present in the Australian biotechnology industry by using the four-way psychological typology (Miner 2000) and identifying linkages between the four-way psychological typology and the Big Five model of personality traits. We believe this is a new approach to using psychological typology in the study of entrepreneurship by mapping with the Big Five model of personality traits. Miner's four typological types are ‘personal achievers’ (PA), ‘super sales people’ (SS), ‘expert idea generators’ (EI) and ‘real managers’ (RM). The Big Five factors are extraversion (Ex), stability/emotion stability (Es), agreeableness (Ag), conscientiousness (Co), and openness to experience (Op). By combining the entrepreneurial types and the five-factor personality traits, we can map the linkage relationships as PA-ExEsCoOp; SS-ExAgCoOp; EI-ExEsOp and RM-ExEsCoOp.

In this pilot study, we find there are more ‘personal achiever’ and ‘expert idea generator’ bioentrepreneurs in the biotech industry with the linkage relationships of PA-ExEsCoOp and EI-Ex EsOp, which lead us to conclude there are strong demands for bioentrepreneurs with managerial skills, sales and marketing skills, skills in forming strategic alliance with partners and skills in securing the public and private capitals through finance channels such as public listing and venture capital. This implies that if PA entrepreneurs acquired more agreeableness personality traits and EI entrepreneurs also acquired more agreeableness and conscientiousness personality traits they would improve the ability of their businesses to attract more financial investments and form sustainable strategic alliance with partners in the Australian biotechnology industry.