No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Uninspired by Old White Guys: The Mobilizing Factor of Younger, More Diverse Candidates for Gen Z Women
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 April 2022
Abstract
American political activism has surged recently among young citizens, particularly among women and people of color. At the same time, record numbers of women and minority candidates have been running for office. Does seeing more diverse candidates in terms of age, gender, and race propel more interest in political engagement among Generation Z, particularly women? Using a survey experiment embedded in a nationally representative survey of Generation Z citizens, we present respondents with Democratic politicians who vary based on these three criteria. Women who identify strongly with their gender express greater political engagement when presented with any candidate who does not fit the stereotypical image of a politician (older, white, male). They are spurred not only by role models who represent them descriptively, but by all politicians belonging to historically marginalized groups. These effects, which are not specific to just Democratic women, provide insights that can inform engagement efforts targeting younger Americans.
Keywords
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Women, Gender, and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association
Footnotes
The authors would like to thank IGNITE and Washington College for help with the survey's funding. Additionally, we thank Dr. Mirya Holman and the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions in improving the manuscript.
References
REFERENCES
Alexander, Amy C. 2012. “Change in Women's Descriptive Representation and the Belief in Women's Ability to Govern: A Virtuous Cycle.” Politics & Gender 8 (4): 437–64.Google Scholar
Alexander, Amy C., and Jalalzai, Farida. 2020. “Symbolic Empowerment and Female Heads of States and Government: A Global, Multilevel Analysis.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 8 (1): 24–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ashforth, Blake E., and Mael, Fred. 1989. “Social Identity Theory and the Organization.” Academy of Management Review 14 (1): 20–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae. 2003. “Not All Cues Are Created Equal: The Conditional Impact of Female Candidates on Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 65 (4): 1040–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, and Carrillo, Nancy. 2007. “More Is Better: The Influence of Collective Female Descriptive Representation on External Efficacy.” Politics & Gender 3 (1): 79–101.Google Scholar
Banducci, Susan A., Donovan, Todd, and Karp, Jeffrey A.. 2004. “Minority Representation, Empowerment, and Participation.” Journal of Politics 66 (2): 534–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, Tiffany D., and Burchard, Stephanie M.. 2013. “‘Engendering’ Politics: The Impact of Descriptive Representation on Women's Political Engagement in Sub-Sahara Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 46 (7): 767–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, Matt, Segura, Gary M., and Woods, Nathan D.. 2004. “The Mobilizing Effect of Majority-Minority Districts on Latino Turnout.” American Political Science Review 98 (1): 65–75.Google Scholar
Belli, Robert F., Moore, Sean E., and Van Hoewyk, John. 2006.“An Experimental Comparison of Question Forms Used to Reduce Overreporting.” Electoral Studies 25 (4): 751–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence, and Gilliam, Franklin D.. 1990. “Race, Sociopolitical Participation, and Black Empowerment.” American Political Science Review 84 (2): 377–93.Google Scholar
Brownstein, Ronald. 2015. “The Clinton Conundrum.” The Atlantic, April 17. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/04/the-clinton-conundrum/431949/ (accessed December 12, 2021).Google Scholar
Burn, Shawn Meghan, Aboud, Roger, and Moyles, Carey. 2000. “The Relationship between Gender Social Identity and Support for Feminism.” Sex Roles 42 (11): 1081–89.Google Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Political Action: Gender, Equality and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, David E., and Wolbrecht, Christina. 2006. “See Jane Run: Women Politicians as Role Models for Adolescents.” The Journal of Politics. 68 (2): 233–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, David E., and Wolbrecht, Christina. 2020. “The Resistance as Role Model: Disillusionment and Protest Among American Adolescents after 2016.” Political Behavior 42 (4): 1143–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CAWP (Center for American Woman and Politics). 2020. “Will There Be an AOC Effect in 2020?” February 24. https://cawp.rutgers.edu/election-analysis/will-there-be-aoc-effect-2020 (accessed December 7, 2021).Google Scholar
Chittal, Nisha. 2019. “Trump's Latest Tweets Are about Silencing Women of Color in Congress.” Vox, July 15. https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/4/8/18272072/ilhan-omar-rashida-tlaib-alexandria-ocasio-cortez-racism-sexism (accessed December 7, 2021).Google Scholar
Cilluffo, Anthony, and Fry, Richard. 2019. “Gen Z, Millennials and Gen X Outvoted Older Generations in the 2018 Midterms.” Pew Research Center, May 29. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/05/29/gen-z-millennials-and-gen-x-outvoted-older-generations-in-2018-midterms/ (accessed October 10, 2019).Google Scholar
CIRCLE (Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement). 2020. “Young Women's Political Engagement in Elections and Beyond.” May 18. https://circle.tufts.edu/latest-research/young-womens-political-engagement-elections-and-beyond (accessed October 4, 2021).Google Scholar
Clayton, Amanda, O'Brien, Diana Z., and Piscopo, Jennifer M.. 2019. “All Male Panels? Representation and Democratic Legitimacy.” American Journal of Political Science 63 (1): 113–29.Google Scholar
Denny, Kevin, and Doyle, Orla. 2009. “Does Voting History Matter? Analyzing Persistence in Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 53 (1): 17–35.Google Scholar
Dimock, Michael. 2019. “Defining Generations: Where Millennials End and Generation Z Begins.” Pew Research Center, January 17. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/where-millennials-end-and-generation-z-begins/ (accessed December 7, 2021).Google Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2006. “Symbolic Mobilization?: The Impact of Candidate Sex in American Elections.” American Politics Research 34 (6): 687–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovi, Suzanne. 2007. “Theorizing Women's Representation in the United States.” Politics & Gender 3 (3): 297–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, Claudine. 2001. “The Effect of Black Congressional Representation on Political Participation.” American Political Science Review 95 (3): 589–602.Google Scholar
Gilardi, Fabrizio. 2015. “The Temporary Importance of Role Models for Women's Political Representation.” American Journal of Political Science 59 (4): 957–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González-Ramírez, Andrea. 2018. “The Women of Color Who Made History That Month.” Refinery29, November 19. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2018/11/215642/election-candidates-women-of-color-ocasio-cortez-tlaib-midterms-2018 (accessed June 12, 2020).Google Scholar
Hansen, Susan B. 1997. “Talking about Politics: Gender and Contextual Effects on Political Proselytizing.” Journal of Politics 59 (1): 73–103.Google Scholar
Harbin, Brielle M., and Margolies, Michele F.. 2020. “Nobody's Free until Everybody's Free: How Feminist Identification Influences White Americans’ Willingness to Recognize and Respond to Racial Discrimination.” Politics, Groups and Identities. Published online December 25. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1846132.Google Scholar
Holbrook, Allyson L., and Krosnick, Jon A.. 2010. “Social Desirability Bias in Voter Turnout Reports.” Public Opinion Quarterly 74 (1): 37–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hook, Janet. 2018. “Young Women Aren't Waiting to Seek Political Power.” Wall Street Journal, October 14. https://www.wsj.com/articles/young-women-arent-waiting-to-seek-political-power-1539522001 (accessed June 22, 2021).Google Scholar
Huddy, Leonie. 2001. “From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory.” Political Psychology 22 (1): 127–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, and Khatib, Nadia. 2007. “American Patriotism, National Identity, and Political Involvement.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (1): 63–77.Google Scholar
Huddy, Leonie, Mason, Lilliana, and Aarøe, Lene. 2015. “Expressive Partisanship: Campaign Involvement, Political Emotion, and Partisan Identity.” American Political Science Review 109 (1): 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Palfrey, Thomas R., eds. 1993. Experimental Foundations of Political Science. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Koch, Jeffrey. 1997. “Candidate Gender and Women's Psychological Engagement in Politics.” American Politics Quarterly 25 (1): 118–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2004. “Politics of Presence? Congresswomen and Symbolic Representation.” Political Research Quarterly 57 (1): 81–99.Google Scholar
Liu, Shan-Jan Sarah, and Banaszak, Lee Ann. 2017. “Do Government Positions Held by Women Matter? A Cross-National Examination of Female Ministers’ Impacts on Women's Political Participation.” Politics & Gender 13 (1): 1–31.Google Scholar
Lyons, Sean T., and Kuron, Lisa. 2014. “Generational Differences in the Workplace: A Review of the Evidence and Directions for Future Reseach.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 35 (1): 139–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.’” Journal of Politics 61 (3): 628–57.Google Scholar
Mariani, Mack, Marshall, Bryan W., and Lanethea Mathews-Schultz, A.. 2015. “See Hillary Clinton, Nancy Pelosi, and Sarah Palin Run? Party, Ideology, and the Influence of Female Role Models on Young Women.” Political Research Quarterly 68 (4): 716–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michelson, Melissa R., Bedolla, Lisa García, and McConnell, Margaret A.. 2009. “Heeding the Call: The Effect of Targeted Two-Round Phone Banks on Voter Turnout.” Journal of Politics 71 (4): 1549–63.Google Scholar
Niemi, Richard G., and Jennings, Kent M.. 1991. “Issues and Inheritance in the Formation of Party Identification.” American Journal of Political Science 35 (4): 970–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pantoja, Adrian D., and Segura, Gary M.. 2003. “Does Ethnicity Matter? Descriptive Representation in Legislatures and Political Alienation Among Latinos.” Social Science Quarterly 84 (2): 441–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinsker, Joe. 2020. “On No, They've Come Up with Another Generation Label.” The Atlantic, February 21. https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2020/02/generation-after-gen-z-named-alpha/606862/ (accessed December 7, 2021).Google Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna Fenichel. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
PRRI. 2018. “Diversity, Discrimination, Division: The State of Young America.” January 10. https://www.prri.org/research/mtv-culture-and-religion/ (accessed December 7, 2021).Google Scholar
Reingold, Beth, and Harrell, Jessica. 2010. “The Impact of Descriptive Representation on Women's Political Engagement: Does Party Matter?” Political Research Quarterly 63 (2): 280–94.Google Scholar
Rouse, Stella M., and Ross, Ashley D.. 2019. The Politics of Millennials: Political Beliefs and Policy Preferences of America's Most Diverse Generation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Sirin, Cigdem V., Valentino, Nicholas A., and Villalobos, José D.. 2016. “Group Empathy Theory: The Effect of Group Empathy on US Intergroup Attitudes and Behavior in the Context of Immigration Threats.” Journal of Politics 78 (3): 893–908.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes-Brown, Atiya Kai, and Dolan, Kathleen. 2010. “Race, Gender, and Symbolic Representation: African American Female Candidates as Mobilizing Agents.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 20 (4): 473–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri. 1981. Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri, and Turner, John C.. 1986. “The Social Identity of Intergroup Behavior.” In Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 2nd ed., ed. Worchel, Stephen. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 7–24.Google Scholar
Van Knippenberg, Ad. 1984. “Intergroup Differences in Group Perceptions.” In The Social Dimension: European Developments in Social Psychology, vol. 2, edited by Tajfel, Henri. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 560–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Rossem, Annick H. D. 2019. “Generations as Social Categories: An Exploratory Cognitive Study of Generational Identity and Generational Stereotypes in a Multigenerational Workforce.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 40 (4): 434–55.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Burns, Nancy, and Schlozman, Kay Lehman. 1997. “Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 59 (4): 1051–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolak, Jennifer. 2015. “Candidate Gender and the Political Engagement of Women and Men.” American Politics Research 43 (5): 872–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolak, Jennifer. 2020. “Descriptive Representation and the Political Engagement of Women. Politics & Gender 16 (2): 339–62.Google Scholar
Wolak, Jennifer, and McDevitt, Michael. 2011. “The Roots of the Gender Gap in Political Knowledge in Adolescence.” Political Behavior 33 (3): 505–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolbrecht, Christina, and Campbell, David E.. 2007. “Leading by Example: Female Members of Parliament as Political Role Models.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (4): 921–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolbrecht, Christina, and Campbell, David E.. 2017. “Role Models Revisited: Youth, Novelty, and the Impact of Female Candidates.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 5 (3): 418–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolbrecht, Christina, and Campbell, David E.. 2019. “Restoring Faith in American Democracy: The Effect of Women Candidates on Adolescents’ Evaluations of Politics in 2018.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 29.Google Scholar
Zhou, Li. 2019. “A Historical New Congress will be Sworn in Today.” Vox, January 3. https://www.vox.com/2018/12/6/18119733/congress-diversity-women-election-good-news (accessed December 12, 2021).Google Scholar
Deckman and McDonald supplementary material
Online Appendix
File
646.5 KB