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¹⁴ The history of the emergence of the New Left in Britain between the twin crises of Suez and Hungary and the establishment of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1958 is well documented. See Sedgwick, Peter, “The Two New Lefts,” International Socialism, no. 17 (Summer 1964): 15–23Google Scholar; Hall, Stuart, “The Life and Times of the First New Left,” New Left Review 61 (January/February 2010): 177–96Google Scholar; Chun, Lin, The British New Left (Edinburgh, 1993)Google Scholar; Kenny, Michael, The First New Left: British Intellectuals after Stalin (London, 1995)Google Scholar; Dworkin, Dennis, Cultural Marxism in Postwar Britain: History, the New Left and the Origins of Cultural Studies (London, 1997)Google Scholar; Davis, Madeline, “The Origins of the British New Left,” in 1968 in Europe: A History of Protest and Activism, 1956–1977, ed. Klimke, Martin and Scharloth, Joachim (Basingstoke, 2008), 47–54Google Scholar. As recent works by Madeleine Davis and Celia Hughes have shown, however, New Leftists did not simply abandon their political activities in the wake of the decline of the peace movement in the early 1960s. See Davis, Madeline, “‘Among the Ordinary People’: New Left Involvement in Working Class Political Mobilization, 1956–1968,” History Workshop Journal 86, no. 1 (October 2018): 133–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hughes, Celia, Young Lives on the Left: Sixties Activism and the Liberation of the Self (Manchester, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²¹ As Errol Lawrence has argued, sociological work on racial inequality in Britain by the 1960s and 1970s often blamed the victim by pathologizing West Indian family structures rather than focusing on understanding the mechanisms of systemic racism. Lawrence, Errol, “In the Abundance of Water the Fool Is Thirsty: Sociology and Black ‘Pathology,’” in The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in 70s Britain, ed. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (London, 1982), 95–142Google Scholar. See also Bush, Barbara, “Colonial Research and the Social Sciences at the End of Empire: The West Indian Social Survey, 1944–57,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41, no. 2 (2013): 451–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Helen McCarthy, “Pearl Jephcott and the Politics of Gender, Class and Race in Post-War Britain,” Women's History Review, 12 June 2018, doi.org/10.1080/09612025.2018.1472896.

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²³ Lawrence, Jon, “Inventing the ‘Traditional Working Class’: A Re-analysis of Interview Notes from Young and Willmott's Family and Kinship in East London,” Historical Journal 59, no. 2 (June 2016): 567–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 593, 579.

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³⁰ Midgley, James et al. , Community Participation, Social Development and the State (London, 1986)Google Scholar. See also Immerwahr, Thinking Small; Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa. At the center of the United States federal government's War on Poverty were community development programs modeled on foreign aid.

³¹ As geographers Ruth Craggs and Hannah Neate have argued, in many ways it makes sense to view the development of metropolitan and (post)colonial urban expertise as two parts of one story, through the movement of ideas through professional networks, international institutions, and individual careers. See Craggs, Ruth and Neate, Hannah, “Post-Colonial Careering and Urban Policy Mobility: Between Britain and Nigeria, 1945–1990,” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 42, no. 1 (March 2017): 44–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁴ For the politics of expertise in colonial Africa, see Hodge, Joseph, The Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism (Athens, OH, 2007)Google Scholar.

³⁵ Batten, T. R., Problems of African Development, vol. 2, Government and People (Oxford, 1948), 156Google Scholar.

³⁶ Batten's influence lived on internationally too. Between 1954 and 1972, he and his wife, Madge Batten, also a social worker, went on numerous consultations to train field workers in Ghana, India, Guyana, Trinidad, Liberia, the United States, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Rhodesia, Finland, and Jamaica. See Lovell, “T. R. (Reg) Batten and Madge Batten.”

³⁷ Robinson, Emily et al. , “Telling Stories about Post-War Britain: Popular Individualism and the ‘Crisis’ of the 1970s,” Twentieth-Century British History 28, no. 2 (2017): 268–304CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

³⁸ Batten's 1962 text Training for Community Development defined the field, and The Non-Directive Approach to Group and Community Work (1967), coauthored with Madge Batten, still appears in contemporary community development readers. See, for example, Craig et al., The Community Development Reader.

³⁹ Natarajan, “Conversations in a Nottingham Welfare Office.” See also Radhika Natarajan, “Organizing Community: Commonwealth Citizens and Social Activism in Britain, 1948–1982” (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2013).

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⁴³ McEwan, Martin, Housing, Race and Law: The British Experience (London 1991), 91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁴⁵ This argument relates to the current work of Marc Matera, whose research reveals that the roots of “race relations” spring from an effort to limit and control African radicalism. Matera, “The African Grounds of ‘Race Relations’ in Britain,” paper presented at the Modern British Studies Conference, Birmingham, UK, 5 July 2017.

⁴⁶ Immerwahr, Thinking Small, 4.

⁴⁷ The most perceptive initial sociological and historical analysis was provided by Glass, Ruth, Newcomers: The West Indians in London (London, 1960), 127–46Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Randall Hansen argues the impact of the riots was in fact ambiguous at the governmental level, as the government did not want to appear to be pandering to racist violence by passing immigration restrictions. See Hanson, Randall, Citizenship and Immigration in Post-War Britain: The Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar; Paul, Kathleen, Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in Postwar Era (Ithaca, 1997)Google Scholar

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⁵¹ O'Malley, Jan, The Politics of Community Action: A Decade of Struggle in Notting Hill (Nottingham, 1977)Google Scholar, 27.

⁵² Robin D. G. Kelley and Stephen Tuck, introduction to Kelley and Tuck, The Other Special Relationship, 1–6.

⁵³ Schwarz, “Claudia Jones”; Matera, Black London; Perry, London Is the Place.

⁵⁴ John Rex, review of The Politics of the Powerless: A Study of the Campaign against Racial Discrimination, by Heineman, Benjamin W., American Journal of Sociology 80, no. 5 (March 1975): 1272–75Google Scholar.

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⁵⁷ Pilkington, Beyond the Mother Country, 144.

⁵⁸ Malik, Michael Abdul, From Michael de Freitas to Michael X (London, 1968), 79–80Google Scholar, as quoted in Pilkington, 144.

⁵⁹ Davis, “Containing Racism?,” 128–29.

⁶⁰ Davis, 129.

⁶¹ Davis, 128–29.

⁶² As cited in Davis, 129.

⁶³ Tank Green, Digging at Roots.

⁶⁴ Wellings, Martin, “Renewal, Reunion, and Revival: Three British Methodist Approaches to ‘Serving the Present Age’ in the 1950s,” Methodist History 53, no. 1 (October 2014): 21–39Google Scholar, at 22.

⁶⁵ Green, Digging at Roots, 89.

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⁶⁷ Perry, London Is the Place (2015); Schwarz, “Claudia Jones”; Sherwood, Marika, Claudia Jones: A Life in Exile (London, 1999)Google Scholar; Davies, Carole Boyce, Left of Karl Marx: The Political Life of a Black Communist (Durham, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Perry, London Is the Place, 133.

⁶⁹ Perry, 133.

⁷⁰ As cited in Green, Digging at Roots, 403.

⁷¹ On Cochrane's murder, see the outstanding piece of investigative journalism by Olden, Mark, Murder in Notting Hill (London, 2011)Google Scholar.

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⁷³ Perry, 108.

⁷⁴ Speakers at this conference included Dr. Kenneth Little, a leading “race relations” anthropologist from the Department of Social Anthropology at Edinburgh University; Pansy Jeffrey; and David Pitt, from the London County Council and leader of the Campaign Against Racial Discrimination. Pearl Jephcott was also in attendance. “The Migrant in the Community, 27 September 1962, at the Notting Hill Methodist Church,” Pansy Jeffrey Papers, GB 0074 LMA/4462/P, London Metropolitan Archives (hereafter LMA).

⁷⁵ Donald Soper, “The Migrant in the Community, 27 September 1962 at the Notting Hill Methodist Church,” Pansy Jeffrey Papers, GB 0074 LMA/4462/P, LMA.

⁷⁶ Soper, “Migrant in the Community.”

⁷⁷ For recent work on the political work of liberal discourses, see Shaw, Caroline, Britannia's Embrace: Modern Humanitarianism and the Imperial Origins of Refugee Relief (Oxford, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁹ Hall, “ULR Club at Notting Hill,” 72.

⁸⁰ Alice Ritscherle, “Opting Out of Utopia: Race and Working-Class Political Culture in Britain during the Age of Decolonization, 1948–68” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2004).

⁸¹ For a discussion of the imperial legacies of British internationalism, see Bocking-Welch, Anna, “Imperial Legacies and Internationalist Discourses: British Involvement in the United Nations Freedom from Hunger Campaign, 1960–1970,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 40, no. 5 (December 2012): 879–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸³ “Racial Tension,” report no. 3, 21 July 1959, 8, Metropolitan Police Special Branch, HO 325/9, The National Archives.

⁸⁴ Benn quoted in Kynaston, David, Modernity Britain: Opening the Box, 1957–1959 (London, 2013), 258Google Scholar.

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⁸⁶ Hall, 190.

⁸⁷ Hall, 190, 191.

⁸⁸ On this earlier history, see Bradley, Kate, Poverty, Philanthropy and the State: Charities and the Working Classes in London, 1918–1979 (Manchester, 2009)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Hall, Stuart, “ULR Club at Notting Hill.” New Left Review 1: 1 (1960), 71Google Scholar.

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⁹¹ See Davis, John, “Rents and Race in 1960s London: New Light on Rachmanism,” Twentieth Century British History 12, no. 1 (January 2001): 69–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 74–75; Simmonds, Alan G. V., “Raising Rachman: The Origins of the Rent Act, 1957,” Historical Journal 45, no. 4, (December 2002): 843–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹² As a Special Branch report into Rachman's activities in 1957–58 noted, “It is known that during the last two years a number of white tenants have been given sums of money ranging from £10 to £150 to vacate their premises, let to them as unfurnished accommodation, after which a few bits of furniture have been installed and the rents considerably increased.” “Report on: Naturalisation, Perec Rachman,” 22 January 1959, NA MEPO 2/9999, Metropolitan Police Special Branch, 14.

⁹³ All quotations from Chesworth, “Anatomy of Notting Hill.”

⁹⁴ Chesworth, “Anatomy of Notting Hill.”

⁹⁵ Hall, Familiar Stranger, 259.

⁹⁶ Chesworth, “Anatomy of Notting Hill.”

⁹⁷ Owen, Nicholas, “Four Straws in the Wind: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, January–February 1960,” in The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization, ed. Butler, L. J. and Stockwell, Sarah (Basingstoke, 2013), 116–139CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 116.

⁹⁸ Pansy Jeffrey, interview by Nuala Sanderson, 7 May 1997, as cited in Sanderson, “The Impact of the Struggle for Racial Equality on British Racialised Relations from 1958 to 1968” (PhD diss., University of Southampton, 1999), 125.

⁹⁹ Alexio Zihute, interview by Camilla Schofield, Luton, 6 March 2015.

¹⁰⁰ Zihute, interview.

¹⁰¹ Zihute.

¹⁰² Green, Shirley, Rachman (London, 1979), 99Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Stuart Hall, interview by Paul Thompson, 6 March 2012, West Hampstead, 43–44, in Paul Thompson, Pioneers of Social Research, 1996–2012. [data collection]. 4th ed. UK Data Service. SN: 6226, http://doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-6226-5 (2018).

¹⁰⁴ Hall, Familiar Stranger, 259

¹⁰⁵ Hall, 259.

¹⁰⁶ See reports in Daily Telegraph (London) and Manchester Guardian, 28 May 1959, in “Race Relations in London in the Years after the Notting Hill Riots,” folder 8, Press Reports, 1959–1961, HLG 117/122/8, The National Archives.

¹⁰⁷ O'Malley, Politics of Community Action, 29–30.

¹⁰⁸ Green, Rachman, 132.

¹⁰⁹ Green, 130.

¹¹⁰ Green, 133.

¹¹¹ Hall, Familiar Stranger, 260.

¹¹² Hall, 260.

¹¹³ Sanderson, “The Impact of the Struggle,” 109.

¹¹⁴ Note that some people at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies did engage in community activism—see, for example, the interviews by Kieran Connell with Chas Critcher (20 February 2015) and Trevor Fisher and Brian Homer (27 March 2015), accessed 28 November 2018, http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/historycultures/departments/history/research/projects/cccs/interviews/audio-interviews.aspx.

¹¹⁵ See Minutes of the Notting Hill Social Council, January to November 1964, DC/94, Chesworth Papers, Queen Mary Archives, University of London.

¹¹⁶ Zihute, interview.

¹¹⁷ Perry, London Is the Place, 136.

¹¹⁸ Reflecting the global dimensions of community work, Chesworth would go on to join Huddleston in building an agricultural school in rural Tanzania and leading the international War on Want charity. Africa I File, DC/48, Chesworth papers, Queen Mary Archives, University of London.

¹¹⁹ Even more, these social workers highlight women's largely forgotten intellectual contributions to the British New Left prior to the Women's Liberation Movement. Similarly, Perry notes that “Black women overwhelming dominated the leadership of the [Inter-Racial Friendship Coordinating Council] and undoubtedly played important roles in shaping the direction and content of the organization's early activities.” Perry, 138.

¹²⁰ Hall, “Life and Times of the First New Left,” 191.

¹²¹ Younghusband, Eileen, Report of the Working Party on Social Workers in the Local Authority Health and Welfare Services (London, 1959)Google Scholar; see, for example, para. 638.

¹²² That is, Central North Kensington. See Jephcott, Pearl, A Troubled Area: Notes on Notting Hill (London, 1964)Google Scholar, 11. On Jephcott's innovative methods, see Goodwin, John and O'Connor, Henrietta, “Pearl Jephcott: The Legacy of a Forgotten Sociological Research Pioneer,” Sociology 49, no. 1 (February 2015): 139–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹²⁴ Jephcott, 122–30.

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¹²⁶ Ilys Booker, “Welfare Provisions and Citizens Participation—Plenary Session V,” Sixth Meeting of the British National Conference on Social Welfare, LMA/4196/10/002, Muriel Smith Papers, LMA.

¹²⁷ Ilys Booker, “Consultation on Community Development.” Scottish Churches’ House, Dunblane, 20 February 1968, LMA/4196/10/004/01, Muriel Smith Papers, LMA.

¹²⁸ Harris, Jose, “Political Thought and the Welfare State, 1870–1940: An Intellectual Framework for British Social Policy,” Past and Present 135, no. 1 (May 1992): 116–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹³¹ “Working with Groups.”

¹³² “Working with Groups.”

¹³³ Booker, “Consultation on Community Development.” The development of the project from its inception up to 1969 is recorded in Roger Milton and Elizabeth Morrison, A Community Project in Notting Dale (London, 1972).

¹³⁴ “Immigration: Westminster Regional Campaign,” July 1966, LMA/4462/P/01/030, Pansy Jeffrey Papers, LMA.

¹³⁵ Bate, Stuart C., “The YCW Moves into Soweto and Other Black Townships: 1952 to 1965,” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 43, no. 3 (2017): 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹³⁸ Rossinow, Politics of Authenticity, 4.

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¹⁴⁰ “Immigration: Westminster Regional Campaign.”

¹⁴¹ Notting Hill Social Council Minutes, 4 July 1966, LMA/4462/P/01, Pansy Jeffrey Papers, LMA.

¹⁴² Jan O'Malley, interview by Dave Welsh for the Britain at Work Project: Voices from the Workplace, 1945–1995, 18 September 2011, TUC Library Collections, London Metropolitan University, available here: http://www.unionhistory.info/britainatwork/resources/audio.php.

¹⁴³ O'Malley, interview.

¹⁴⁴ O'Malley, interview.

¹⁴⁵ Notting Hill Housing Service, acknowledgments, Initial Housing Survey Notting Hill Summer Project 1967: Interim Report (London, 1969)Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁶ Rustin, “Community Organising,” 196.

¹⁴⁷ “Notting Hill Tolerance Only Skin Deep,” Times (London), 29April, 1968.

¹⁴⁸ “Notting Hill Tolerance Only Skin Deep.”

¹⁴⁹ “Notting Hill Tolerance Only Skin Deep.”

¹⁵⁰ Notting Hill Housing Service, Initial Housing Survey.

¹⁵¹ Michael Abdul Malik would go on in 1969 to lead a short-lived Black Power commune in North London called Black House. Williams, John, Michael X: A Life in Black and White (London, 2008)Google Scholar.

¹⁵² Green, Digging at Roots, 199–200.

¹⁵³ O'Malley, Politics of Community Action, 50.

¹⁵⁴ O'Malley, 51.

¹⁵⁵ Green, Digging at Roots, 203.

¹⁵⁶ As cited in Green, 203.

¹⁵⁷ Green, 203.

¹⁵⁸ “Working with Groups.”

¹⁵⁹ Patricia Philo, “Notting Hill Today,” Kensington Post, 24 November 1967, as cited in Green, Digging at Roots, 202–3.

¹⁶⁰ O'Malley, Politics of Community Action, 49.

¹⁶¹ Green, Digging at Roots, 200.

¹⁶² See Hansard, Commons, vol. 783 cc1835–44, 15 May 1969; Notting Hill Housing Service, The Rent Acts and the Housing Market in North Kensington: Memorandum of Evidence to the Francis Committee (London, 1970)Google Scholar.

¹⁶³ Golborne, no. 62 (22 October 1971), no. 65 (12 November 1971), no. 79 (3 March 1972); New Golborne no. 2 (14 April 1972). Both papers are archived in the Kensington Central Library. See also Pryce vs. Golborne Neighbourhood Council, 1973, Race Relations Board, CK 2/1133, The National Archives.

¹⁶⁴ O'Malley, Politics of Community Action, 53. See also Baine, Sean, “The Political Community,” in Community Work: One, ed. Jones, David and Mayo, Margaret (London, 1974), 66–78Google Scholar. While the Golborne Neighbourhood Council collapsed amid acrimony in early 1973, its institutional legacy was the North Kensington Housing Action Centre, funded by the Grove Community Trust, the Community Relations Commission, Shelter, and other charitable sources. See New Golborne no. 42 (23 February 1972), and no. 43 (2 March 1973); West London Fair Housing Group, The Housing Action Centre in North Kensington, First Annual Report (April 1972), 3–4; all archived in the Kensington Central Library.

¹⁶⁵ In May 1971, for instance, the People's Association helped Merle Major, a West Indian mother, and her children to squat in an empty council property in protest at years of inaction in the face of poor management and harassment from her landlord at 62 St. Ervan's Road. In July, the council put a compulsory purchase order on the St. Ervan's Road property, the first time it had used such powers. O'Malley, Politics of Community Action, 109–11.

¹⁶⁶ In fact, during the early 1970s, one arm of the state, the Metropolitan police, proved most adept at unifying the interests of black and white community workers—or at very least, against the police, white community workers could see themselves as on the right side of “us versus them.” Three community observers were, for instance, arrested and jailed following a police raid at the Metro Youth Club in September of 1971. The pages of People's News contain a number of reports of police harassment of both white and black residents. As Rob Waters has argued, while the Mangrove trial was a signal moment in the consolidation of “Blackness” as a political identity in Britain, the support the defendants received from allies on the left and in the counterculture revealed a network of affinities that at times transcended the boundaries of race. People's News, vol. 1, no. 42 (10 November 1970), vol. 2, no. 21 (8 June 1970), vol. 2, no. 42 (9 November 1970), vol. 3, no. 17 (3 May 1971), vol. 3, no. 18 (10 May 1971), vol. 3, no. 32 (August 1971), vol. 3, no. 35 (20 September 1971); all archived in the Kensington Central Library. Waters, Rob, Thinking Black: Britain, 1964–85 (Oakland, 2018)Google Scholar, chap. 3.

¹⁶⁷ Blagg, Harry and Derricourt, Nick, “Why We Need to Reconstruct a Theory of the State for Community Work,” in Community Work and the State: Towards a Radical Practice, ed. Craig, Gary, Derricourt, Nick, and Loney, Martin (London, 1982), 11–23Google Scholar, at 20.

¹⁶⁸ Editorial, Spectre, no. 1 (July 1968), n.p.

¹⁶⁹ James Cummings quoted in “A Matter of Opinion,” Spectre, no. 1 (July 1968), n.p.

¹⁷⁰ “Race Relations, 1969.” Spectre, no. 6 (January 1969), 1.

¹⁷¹ For a discussion of the place of paternalism in the social democratic project, see Beer, Samuel, British Politics in a Collectivist Age (New York, 1965)Google Scholar; and Lawrence, Jon, “Paternalism, Class, and the British Path to Modernity,” in The Peculiarities of Liberal Modernity in Imperial Britain, ed. Gunn, Simon and Vernon, James (Berkeley, 2011), 147–164Google Scholar.

¹⁷² On the rise of black radicalism and the influence of African-American liberation in Britain, see Sivanandan, Ambalavaner, A Different Hunger? Writings on Black Resistance (London, 1982)Google Scholar; Angelo, Anne-Marie, “The Black Panthers in London, 1967–1972: A Diasporic Struggle Navigates the Black Atlantic,” Radical History Review, no. 103 (Winter 2009): 17–35Google Scholar; Bunce, R. E. R. and Field, Paul, “Obi B. Egbuna, C. L. R. James and the Birth of the Black Power Movement in Britain,” Twentieth Century British History 22, no. 3 (September 2011): 391–414CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Waters, Rob, “Black Power on the Telly: America, Television, and Race in 1960s and 1970s Britain.” Journal of British Studies 54, no. 4 (2015): 947–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷³ “We Will Sponsor a ‘Race Forum,’” Kensington Post, 3 September 1965, as cited in Green, Digging at Roots, 145.

¹⁷⁴ Green, Digging at Roots, 147–48.

¹⁷⁵ Green, 148.

¹⁷⁶ Green, 150.

¹⁷⁷ Mike Philips, “Separatism or Black Control?” in Ohri, Manning, and Curno, Community Work and Racism, 103–20, at 111–12.

¹⁷⁸ “There is not, as far as I am aware, any black grouping which calls itself ‘separatist’ … If, for instance, the institutions under discussion happened to be one of the several Polish centres or indeed one of the Irish centres, it is hardly likely that the word ‘separatist’ would be employed.” Philips, “Separatism or Black Control?,” 103.

¹⁷⁹ Philips, 105.

¹⁸⁰ Rob Waters, “From Race Relations Sociology to Black Cultural Studies: Reading the Politics of ‘Evidence’ through the History of Race,” paper presented at the Modern British Studies Conference, Birmingham, UK, 5 July 2017.

¹⁸¹ Philips, “Separatism or Black Control?,” 105.

¹⁸² Philips, 106.

¹⁸³ Philips, 106.

¹⁸⁴ Philips, 106.

¹⁸⁵ Philips, 108.

¹⁸⁶ Philips, 108.

¹⁸⁷ “We Lived across the River,” Radio 4 broadcast, 1 April 1969, MS 4000/2/129, Indian Workers Association Papers, Birmingham Library, 1.

¹⁸⁸ “We Lived across the River,” 2

¹⁸⁹ Hall, Stuart, “Old and New Identities, Old and New Ethnicities,” in Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity, ed. King, Anthony D. (Minneapolis, 1997), 41–68Google Scholar, at 52–53.

¹⁹⁰ Hall, “Old and New Identities, Old and New Ethnicities,” 52

¹⁹¹ “We Lived Across the River,” 12.

¹⁹² “We Lived Across the River,” 14.

¹⁹³ “We Lived Across the River,” 14.

¹⁹⁴ Solanke, Iyiola, Making Anti-Racial Discrimination Law: A Comparative History of Social Action and Anti-Racial Discrimination Law (London, 2009), 80Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁵ “We Lived across the River,” 13.

¹⁹⁶ Rex, John, Race, Colonialism and the City (London, 1973)Google Scholar.