1 Here are some ways of negating the affirmative sentences:

• a That’s not the same thing. That isn’t the same thing.

• b The two things don’t often go together. The two things rarely (or seldom) go together.

• c There aren’t any cucumber sandwiches. There are no cucumber sandwiches.

• d The theory is not/isn’t sound. The theory is unsound.

• e I don’t know anything. I know nothing.

Note that rarely (like seldom, hardly and barely) is a ‘broad negative’ in that it makes the statement almost, but not completely, negative.

Note also that words like any and anything typically occur in negative or interrogative contexts. They are called non-assertive forms, by contrast with assertive words like something or nothing.

2 Examples of negation in the text are:

That’s not quite the same thing; the two things rarely go together; I hadn’t been there; I never saw a woman; no cucumber sandwiches; no cucumbers; No; not even for ready money; I know nothing; I do not approve; unsound; no education.

3 The examples of negation can be categorised as follows:

• a a word with a negative prefix: unsound

• b not-negation (using not to negate the verb): that’s not quite the same thing; I hadn’t been there

• c using not to negate an adverb: not even

• d dummy operator (do/does/did + not): I do not approve

• e a negative pronoun, that is, a word that stands for a noun: nothing

• f a negative determiner, that is, a word that precedes a noun: no cucumbers/education

• g a negative adverb: never, rarely

• h a non-assertive form: anything

4 A more complete rule might be:

To make a negative statement in English, insert not after the first auxiliary verb (She hasn’t been swimming), or, if the verb is to be, after the verb (I am not a swimmer). If there is no auxiliary or no verb to be, insert the appropriate form of do before the infinitive form of the verb, and add not after it: She doesn’t swim.

Note that this is why do/does/did is called the ‘dummy operator’: it is enlisted to make up for the absence of an existing operator, the operator being the first auxiliary.