THE LIBERAL STATE TRANSFORMED

The twentieth century is so different from the previous one that the form of government could not remain unaffected. The oligarchic parliament was questioned, as was the capitalist economy. The role of the bourgeoisie, that relentless motor of the nineteenth century, was contested by new, politically conscious groups, but there was also displeasure within the ranks of the old middle class: the bourgeoisie was not without self-criticism, and the scions of well-to-do families played a conspicuous role in workers' parties. The demand for participation in the running of the economy, for social security and for a fairer share of the fruits of labour could not leave the old-style affluent liberalism and the governments that supported it untouched. Nor could the ambition of previously inarticulate classes to take part in the political power game be ignored, particularly after the old leading groups had seen their world collapse in the terrible conflagration of the First World War. At the same time the proclamation of the right of self-determination by the smaller nations led many to oppose existing governments, which were blamed for oppressing minorities: the time had come for the latter to take their political fate into their own hands.

Discontent was universal, but the forms it took and their impact on the state differed widely. In several countries the liberal state continued on its old foundations, albeit not without some more or less radical adaptations.