The years between the beginning of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty in 664 and the death of Alexander the Great in 323 are an age of unique interest in the history of Pharaonic Egypt. In the first place, they include the last periods during which it functioned as an independent political entity; secondly, since the source material is often unusually varied, both in origin and in character, this era yields insights into historical events and the nature of Egyptian society which would be difficult to parallel in earlier times; finally, and most intriguing of all, we are presented during these years with the spectacle of Egyptian culture under pressure from major civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East and are able to study in some depth the adaptations which it made in ideology, institutions, and technological apparatus in order to counter recurrent challenges to its cultural identity. In the present chapter an attempt will be made, in the first instance, to define the political and military context within which these developments unfolded; we shall then proceed to a detailed analysis of the socio-economic system whose vigour, efficiency, and flexibility ultimately determined the success and even survival of the nation during these years of intermittent triumph and disaster.

PROLEGOMENA

Chronology

To the Egyptologist chronology is a recurrent problem, and the period covered by this chapter is no exception. Indeed, the difficulties are particularly acute; for not only is it necessary to deal with no fewer than three oriental systems of dating – Egyptian, Babylonian and Jewish – but the historian is also required to master Greek and Roman chronological techniques as well.