A minimal level of conformity is a prerequisite for civilized human interaction. Although creativity and the flourishing of arts and sciences are stifled by overconformity, underconformity (or lawlessness) threatens the very existence of the individuals and structures that comprise civilization. The origins of both over- and underconformity must be better understood if human civilization is to be preserved and developed. Anything that contributes to such understanding must be nurtured.

At the turn of the century, biologically oriented speculation dominated the study of lawless human conduct. The speculations were inspired by Darwin's theory of evolution. In some instances, the mechanistic and coldblooded applications of this theory to social conditions produced an attitude toward human beings that smacked of immorality. Spencer's brand of social Darwinism, for example, suggested that the human species be improved by selective breeding and favored “shouldering aside the weak by the strong.” Social Darwinism was extended to support aspects of colonialism, racism, and limitation of social welfare. In the 1920s, in the United States, this orientation provided the intellectual basis of discriminatory immigration laws. These laws contributed to the death of thousands who might have escaped Hitler's extermination programs. Hitler's master-race ravings are among the recent “biological” speculations of the causes of human social behavior.

Given this history, it is not surprising that men and women interested in social justice have a tendency to view with suspicion any new speculations or empirical investigations linking biological factors with human social conduct, especially crime among the underprivileged.