Introduction

The subject of the construction of social identity in contemporary western societies is a growing area of research interest. Conceptualising today's society as late modernity, fluid modernity or postmodernity (amongst other signifiers), researchers argue that social identities have become increasingly problematic and contestable as a result of the demise of the so-called ‘Golden Age’ of post-war Europe and North America of full employment and rising affluence, together with the emergence of uncertainty, risk and insecurity with a concomitant questioning of, and focus upon, identity as a source of meaning (Beck, 1992; Lyon, 1999; Young, 1999; Bauman, 2000).

Unsurprisingly, therefore, numerous books and articles have increasingly focused upon and explored questions of identity (see, for example, Calhoun, 1994; Craib, 1998; Lyon, 1999; Gilroy, 2002; Woodward, 2002; Castells, 2004; Taylor and Spencer, 2004). Whilst traditionally, class, gender and racial/ethnic identities have generated substantial social scientific research interest, other groups are now receiving greater focus, specifically those relating to sexual orientation, religion, disability and age. At the same time, work by Giddens (1991), Beck (1992), Lash (1994a) and Bauman (2000, 2004) includes a focus upon the construction of self in late modernity since it is argued that increasing individualisation means that human identity is a task under continual construction, with actors having responsibility for this, mediated by abstract expert systems of knowledge. Within this approach, a critique and deconstruction of collective identities can be located, so that although group collectivities continue to be relevant in social, political and policy arenas, specificity of experience is increasingly being acknowledged and pursued by policy makers, state agencies and researchers.

Identity formations are of crucial significance when attempting to examine some of the important contemporary developments within the criminal justice and community safety sectors. For example, recently, bias-motivated offending has entered the criminological terrain, with the introduction of hate crime legislation in the US, the UK, Australia, as well as in other western democratic societies. Within this approach to crime, agencies of the criminal justice system are required to take into consideration victims’ and offenders’ identities and victims’ perceptions when considering the motivation for an offence, so that crimes motivated by racial, religious or homophobic hatred (as well as other forms of prejudice) are dealt with more severely.