The principal aim of this study was to develop a better understanding of the determinants of participation and non-participation in lifelong learning. This involved a close analysis of changes in individual trajectories of participation over time, as well as the detailed consideration of the impacts of regionally and locally specific patterns of social and economic development. While our analysis is, of necessity, based in one economic region it is quite clear that most of the lessons we have drawn for policy making are more generally applicable to the UK and beyond. Our understanding of the role of local factors allows us to separate their impact on lifelong participation from the impact of more general determinants and of individual choices. It is this complexity that would be missed in attempts at explaining the ensuing patterns via individual narratives or universal ‘rules’ (such as those of simple human capital theory).

Overview of main findings

It is significant that ‘non-participants’ account for almost a third of respondents, neatly balancing the number of ‘lifelong learners’. For this substantial minority of respondents, their experience of lifelong learning ended with initial schooling, which confirms previous accounts of the size of the task confronting policy makers seeking to promote lifelong learning. The full model used to explain the five patterns of participation in lifelong learning includes over 40 independent variables, but the sense of these can be summarised in terms of five broad factors, all of which reflect characteristics of respondents which are determined relatively early during the life course.

Time

When respondents were born determines their relationship to changing opportunities for learning and social expectations. It is significant that respondents with similar social backgrounds from different birth cohorts exhibit different tendencies to participate in education and training.

Place

Where respondents are born and brought up shapes their access to specifically local opportunities to participate and social expectations. Those who have lived in the most economically disadvantaged areas (such as Blaenau Gwent) are least likely to participate in lifelong learning. However, those who have moved between regions are even more likely to participate than those living in the more advantaged localities.

Gender

Men consistently report more formal learning than women. Although the situation is changing, these changes are different for each gender. Women are still less likely to participate in lifelong learning, but are now more likely to be ‘transitional learners’.