Introduction

Through examination of the problem stream (Chapter 4), the policy stream (Chapter 5) and the political stream (Chapter 6), we have been piecing together how movements in cannabis policy come into fruition. Thus far, the discussion has largely focused on the national level of decision making, and for good reason: changes in cannabis policy often relate to legislation determined by a national sovereign entity. However, it would be a mistake to assume that decision-making beneath the national level is irrelevant or that it simply mirrors national policy. Rather, spheres of governance beyond the national can be pivotal in the generation and unfolding of policy (see Stenson and Edwards, 2004; Edwards and Hughes, 2005; Devroe et al, 2017).

Accordingly, this chapter aims to identify different mechanisms and relations of decision-making that facilitate or hinder the negotiation, resistance and subversion of cannabis policy at the subnational level. First, the empirical focus on England & Wales and the Netherlands is continued, comparing and contrasting the representation of problems at the national level and looking at the unfolding of nationally introduced policy changes in two contexts: Cardiff/Wales and Utrecht. From there, taking a broader lens, the role and nature of the subnational in two further countries – the United States and Japan – are considered, to exemplify contrasting settings for manifestations of cannabis policy.

A muted dragon? Reclassification in Wales

As alluded to in Chapter 1, owing to the legal provisions afforded under devolution settlements in the United Kingdom since 1998, the notion of a clear and singular subnational level in England & Wales has become somewhat awkward and clunky proposition. In respect of the Welsh context, the Welsh Government and affiliated Wales-level agencies are now important players with lawmaking and decision-making abilities directly affecting substance use policy (see Brewster and Jones, 2019; Jones, 2020; Evans et al, 2021). In addition, as is the case across the United Kingdom, local authorities represent a key level at which policy is determined and implemented. For the sake of clarity and to contrast with the national jurisdiction of England & Wales, here we focus jointly on Wales – as a partially devolved legislature – and Cardiff – as a site of local governance – in respect of the 2009 reclassification of cannabis to Class B.