The intransigence of the settler states propelled the liberation movements in Zimbabwe, Namibia, and South Africa into following a revolutionary path. However, armed struggle dictated a tortuous and long-term route, demanding not only the political and military training of guerrilla armies and the securing of military and logistical support from international allies, but also massively intensifying foreign involvement throughout the region. On the one hand, the liberation movements were required to balance the need for engagement with relevant Western powers against ideological and military support from the Soviet Union and China; on the other, as the settler regimes were forced to confront the rising costs of containing popular power and armed struggle. Britain and the US came to reassess their regional interests, ultimately leading them to force through an accommodation between settlers and nationalists constructed around the twin objectives of containing communism and maintaining a capitalist economy.

The struggle for Zimbabwe

Britain proceeded with the dismantling of the Central African Federation and the granting of independence to its non-settler colonies from the 1960s. But more threatening to settler states was the spread of insurgency. Earliest developments occurred in Angola and Mozambique, forcing Portugal to respond with extensive counter-insurgency, while opening its territories to increased international investment to build up the Western stake in its victory. Ironically, this strengthened those in Portugal who were seeking to re-orient Portuguese capitalism towards the European Economic Community, while as the costs of occupation rose higher, the Portuguese monopolies became less committed to Africa.