Chapter 4 pulled back the curtain a little on the retention story by revealing some of the twists and turns children encounter along their passage through the elementary and middle school years. We now have a sense of what is happening. To whom it is happening is addressed in the present chapter. What makes retainees different from children who move smoothly through the grade structure, and what distinguishes different kinds of retainees from one another? One comparison is between first grade repeaters and those held back later. First grade retention may be distinctive because of the stress that revolves around entry into school and also because of its being the first decisive time of evaluation. Children retained later have had at least a year of satisfactory performance, which implies a smoother transition experience. Probably, too, those who have made it through first grade are not at the bottom of the test score distribution or the least well adjusted. We also compare retainees who stay on track after repeating a year with children held back twice and/or assigned to special education classes. These children attracted additional administrative attention after being held back. If that is the case, one supposes their problems at school are more acute than those of one-time repeaters, although this remains to be seen.

Who Is Held Back?

We first ask what distinguishes retainees from never-retained children in three areas.