Over the last two decades, it is striking how evidence from a range of disciplines – psychology, economics, social policy, sociology and the biological sciences – has influenced both the debate and policies adopted to improve children's outcomes. Throughout this book, we look at two different types of evidence from research. In this chapter, we analyse evidence that is needed to understand how children develop and what shapes their outcomes, both positive and negative. The second type of evidence is the effort to find solutions to improving children's development or addressing their difficulties. In Chapter Five, we explore the evidence for the efficacy of responses to solve problems both at the policy level and at the practice level of particular interventions.

This chapter begins with some ground clearing to clarify key concepts and a brief overview of the phases of childhood development and recent breakthroughs in neuroscience that increase our understanding of development. Throughout the chapter, we focus on how poverty and family resources (material, social and educational) impact on child outcomes. We also look at the ways in which these socio-economic factors are mediated by family circumstances, parent– child relationships, the relationship between parents, maternal mental health and parenting practices.

We are particularly interested in the lens of poverty and policy. What disadvantages do children in poverty face? What impact do various factors have on outcomes for children in poverty? Can anything be done to improve the chances of better outcomes?

Key concepts and outcomes

There are a range of indicators of childhood development and outcomes that are related to lifelong well-being. They include early learning and school achievement, access to further and higher education, employment and healthy physical development, and mental health and well-being. They are also about staying safe – the prevention of child maltreatment, risky sexual behaviours, crime, anti-social behaviour and substance misuse. In this book, we are primarily concerned with the outcomes that are most amenable to the influence of parents, in particular, cognitive, social and emotional development. We chose these because children's cognitive and non-cognitive skills have a marked influence on a number of other outcomes in childhood and adulthood, from educational achievement to employment, income and physical and mental health (Marmot, 2010).