Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T00:40:09.776Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

13 - Understanding the Social Etiology of Psychosis

from Section Three - Cultural Contexts of Psychopathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 July 2015

Laurence J. Kirmayer
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montréal
Robert Lemelson
Affiliation:
University of California, Los Angeles
Constance A. Cummings
Affiliation:
Foundation for Psychocultural Research, California
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Re-Visioning Psychiatry
Cultural Phenomenology, Critical Neuroscience, and Global Mental Health
, pp. 317 - 342
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allardyce, J., Gilmour, H., Atkinson, J., Rapson, T., Bishop, J., & McCreadie, R. G. (2005). Social fragmentation, deprivation and urbanicity: Relation to first-admission rates for psychoses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 401–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.5.401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Jonassaint, C., Pluess, M., Stanton, M., Brummett, B., & Williams, R. (2009). Vulnerability genes or plasticity genes? Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 746–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mp.2009.44CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentall, R. P., Kinderman, P., & Kaney, S. (1994). The self, attributional processes and abnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions. Behaviour Research Therapy, 32(3), 331–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(94)90131-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhugra, D., Hilwig, M., Hossein, B., Marceau, H., Neehall, J., Leff, J., … Der, G. (1996). First-contact incidence rates of schizophrenia in Trinidad and one-year follow-up. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169(5), 587–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.169.5.587CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Binbay, T., Drukker, J., Alptekin, K., Elbi, H., Aksu Tanik, F., Özkinay, F., … van Os, J. (2012). Evidence that the wider social environment moderates the association between familial liability and psychosis spectrum outcome. Psychological Medicine, 42, 24992510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712000700CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakemore, S.-J., & Mills, K. L. (2014). Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 187205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bourque, F., van der Ven, E., & Malla, A. (2011). A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychological Medicine, 41(5), 897910. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710001406CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boydell, J., & McKenzie, K. (2008). Society, place and space. In Morgan, C., McKenzie, K., & Fearon, P. (Eds.), Society and psychosis (pp. 7794). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boydell, J., van Os, J., McKenzie, K., Allardyce, J., Goel, R., McCreadie, R. G., & Murray, R. M. (2001). Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: Ecological study into interactions with environment. British Medical Journal, 323(7325), 1336–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.323.7325.1336CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boydell, J., van Os, J., McKenzie, K., & Murray, R. M. (2004). The association of inequality with the incidence of schizophrenia: An ecological study. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39(8), 597–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-004-0789-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bresnahan, M., Begg, M. D., Brown, A., Schaefer, C., Sohler, N., Insel, B., … Susser, E. (2007). Race and risk of schizophrenia in a US birth cohort: Another example of health disparity? International Journal of Epidemiology, 36(4), 751–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/dym041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantor-Graae, E. (2007). The contribution of social factors to the development of schizophrenia: A review of recent findings. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(5), 277–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3410/f.1116901.572995CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantor-Graae, E., & Selten, J. P. (2005). Schizophrenia and migration: A meta-analysis and review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(1), 1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.1.12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., … Craig, I. (2005). Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 57(10), 1117–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.026CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooper, R., Boyko, C., & Codinhoto, R. (2008). The effect of the physical environment on mental and capital wellbeing. In D. Flynn (Ed.), Mental capital and wellbeing: Making the most of ourselves in the 21st century. Retrieved from www.gov.uk/government/collections/mental-capital-and-wellbeingGoogle Scholar
Daskalakis, N. P., Bagot, R. C., Parker, K. J., Vinkers, C H., & de Kloet, E. R. (2013). The three-hit concept of vulnerability and resilience: Toward understanding adaptation to early-life adversity outcome. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(9), 1858–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.06.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dean, K., Dazzan, P., Lloyd, T., Morgan, C., Morgan, K., Doody, G. A., … Fearon, P. (2007). Minor physical anomalies across ethnic groups in a first episode psychosis sample. Schizophrenia Research, 89(1–3), 8690. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2006.08.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faris, R., & Dunham, H. (1939). Mental disorders in urban areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Fearon, P., Kirkbride, J. B., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Lloyd, T., … Murray, R. M. (2006). Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: Results from the MRC AESOP Study. Psychological Medicine, 36(11), 1541–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706008774CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, P., & Morgan, C. (2006). Environmental factors in schizophrenia: The role of migrant studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32(3), 405–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbj076Google ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P., Perez, J., Broome, M., Borgwardt, S., Placentino, A., Caverzasi, E., … McGuire, P. (2007). Neurofunctional correlates of vulnerability to psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 31(4), 465–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.11.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., & Bremner, J. D. (2005). MR-based in vivo hippocampal volumetrics: 2. Findings in neuropsychiatric disorders. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(2), 160–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001579Google ScholarPubMed
Gilvarry, C. M., Walsh, E., Samele, C., Hutchinson, G., Mallett, R., Rabe-Hesketh, S., … Murray, R. M. (1999). Life events, ethnicity and perceptions of discrimination in patients with severe mental illness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 34(11), 600–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001270050181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hickling, F. W., & Rodgers-Johnson, P. (1995). The incidence of first contact schizophrenia in Jamaica. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167(2), 193–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.167.2.193CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hosman, C., Jane-Llopis, E., & Saxena, S. (2005). Prevention of mental disorders: Effective interventions and policy options. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Husted, J. A., Ahmed, R., Chow, E. W., Brzustowicz, L. M., & Bassett, A. S. (2012). Early environmental exposures influence schizophrenia expression even in the presence of strong genetic predisposition. Schizophrenia Research, 137(1–3), 166–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.02.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchinson, G., Takei, N., Bhugra, D., Fahy, T. A., Gilvarry, C., Mallett, R., … Murray, R. M. (1997). Increased rate of psychosis among African-Caribbeans in Britain is not due to an excess of pregnancy and birth complications. British Journal of Psychiatry, 171, 145–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.171.2.145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchinson, G., Takei, N., Fahy, T. A., Bhugra, D., Gilvarry, C., Moran, P., … Murray, R. M. (1996). Morbid risk of schizophrenia in first-degree relatives of white and African-Caribbean patients with psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 776–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.169.6.776CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janssen, I., Hanssen, M., Bak, M., Bijl, R. V., de Graaf, R., Vollebergh, W., … van Os, J. (2003). Discrimination and delusional ideation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 71–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.182.1.71CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, L. C., Cannon, M., Singleton, N., Murray, R. M., Farrell, M., Brugha, T., … Meltzer, H. (2004). Prevalence and correlates of self-reported psychotic symptoms in the British population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 185, 298305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.185.4.298CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, S. R., & Fernyhough, C. (2007). A new look at the neural diathesis–stress model of schizophrenia: The primacy of social-evaluative and uncontrollable situations. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(5), 1171–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbl058CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 1323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. Y. (2002). Relation between racial discrimination, social class, and health among ethnic minority groups. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4), 624–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.92.4.624CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlsen, S., Nazroo, J. Y., McKenzie, K., Bhui, K., & Weich, S. (2005). Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychological Medicine, 35(12), 17951803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705005830CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, B. D., O'Callaghan, E., Waddington, J. L., Feeney, L., Browne, S., Scully, P. J., … Larkin, C.(2010). Schizophrenia and the city: A review of literature and prospective study of psychosis and urbanicity in Ireland. Schizophrenia Research, 116(1), 7589. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2009.10.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkbride, J. B., Fearon, P., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Murray, R. M., & Jones, P. B. (2007). Neighbourhood variation in the incidence of psychotic disorders in Southeast London. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(6), 438–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0193-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkbride, J. B., & Jones, P. B. (2011). The prevention of schizophrenia: What can we learn from eco-epidemiology? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(2), 262–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq120CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkbride, J. B., Morgan, C., Fearon, P., Dazzan, P., Murray, R. M., & Jones, P. B. (2007). Neighbourhood-level effects on psychoses: Re-examining the role of context. Psychological Medicine, 37(10), 1413–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707000499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knudsen, E. I., Heckman, J. J., Cameron, J. L., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2006). Economic, neurobiological and behavioral perspectives on building America's future workforce. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 27, 10155–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0600888103Google Scholar
Labonté, B., Farah, A., & Turecki, G. (2015). Early-life adversity and epigenetic changes: Implications for understanding suicide. In Kirmayer, L. J., Lemelson, R., & Cummings, C. A. (Eds.), Re-visioning psychiatry: Cultural phenomenology, critical neuroscience, and global mental health (pp. 206–35). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Laruelle, M., & Abi-Dargham, A. (1999). Dopamine as the wind of the psychotic fire: New evidence from brain imaging studies. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 13(4), 358–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026988119901300405CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lataster, J., Myin-Germeys, I., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H.-U., & van Os, J. (2012). Adversity and psychosis: A 10-year prospective study investigating synergism between early and recent adversity in psychosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125(5), 388–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01805.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederbogen, F., Haddad, L., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2013) Urban social stress – Risk factor for mental disorders. The case of schizophrenia. Environmental Pollution, 183, 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.046CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lederbogen, F., Kirsch, P., Haddad, L., Streit, F., Tost, H., Schuch, P., … Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2011). City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature, 474(7352), 498501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10190CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, J., Chakos, M., Wu, H., Alvir, J., Hoffman, E., Robinson, D., & Bilder, R. (2001). Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first episode schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 49(6), 487–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01067-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahy, G. E., Mallett, R., Leff, J., & Bhugra, D. (1999). First-contact incidence rate of schizophrenia on Barbados. British Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 2833. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.175.1.28CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcelis, M., Takei, N., & van Os, J. (1999). Urbanization and risk for schizophrenia: Does the effect operate before or around the time of illness onset? Psychological Medicine, 29, 11971203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291799008983CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
March, D., Morgan, C., Bresnahan, M., & Susser, E. (2008). Conceptualising the social world. In Morgan, C., McKenzie, K., & Fearon, P. (Eds.), Society and psychosis (pp. 4157). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
March, D., & Susser, E. (2006). Taking the search for causes of schizophrenia to a different level [Invited commentary]. American Journal of Epidemiology, 163(11), 979–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwj170CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, O., Startup, M., Halpin, S., Schall, U., Conrad, A., & Carr, V. (2004). Risk factors for transition to first episode psychosis among individuals with “at-risk mental states.” Schizophrenia Research, 71(2–3), 227–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2004.04.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenzie, K., & Harpham, T. (2006). Social capital and mental health. London, England: Jessica Kingsley.Google Scholar
Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2010). From maps to mechanisms through neuroimaging of schizophrenia. Nature, 468(7321), 194202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09569CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, P., Lawrie, S. M., Hodges, A., Clafferty, R., Cosway, R., & Johnstone, E. C. (2001). Genetic liability, illicit drug use, life stress and psychotic symptoms: Preliminary findings from the Edinburgh study of people at high risk for schizophrenia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(7), 338–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001270170038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, C., & Hutchinson, G. (2009). The social determinants of psychosis in migrant and ethnic minority populations: A public health tragedy. Psychological Medicine, 40,(5), 705–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709005546Google Scholar
Morgan, C., Kirkbride, J., Hutchinson, G., Craig, T., Morgan, K., Dazzan, P., … Fearon, P. (2008). Cumulative social disadvantage, ethnicity and first-episode psychosis: A case-control study. Psychological Medicine, 38(12), 1701–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291708004534CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, C., Kirkbride, J., Leff, J. Craig, T., Hutchinson, G., Mckenzie, K., … Fearon, P. (2007). Parental separation, loss and psychosis in different ethnic groups: A case-control study. Psychological Medicine, 37(4), 495503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009330CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., & van Os, J. (2007). Stress-reactivity in psychosis: Evidence for an affective pathway to psychosis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(4), 409–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myin-Germeys, I., & van Os, J. (2008). Adult adversity: Do early environment and genotype create lasting vulnerabilities for adult social adversity in psychosis? In Morgan, C., McKenzie, K., & Fearon, P. (Eds.), Society and psychosis (pp. 127–42). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nuechterlein, K. H., & Dawson, M. E. (1984). A heuristic vulnerability/stress model of schizophrenic episodes. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 10(2), 300–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/10.2.300CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pascoe, E. A., Richmand, L. S. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychology Bulletin, 135(4), 531–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, C. B., & Mortensen, P. B. (2001). Evidence of a dose-response relationship between urbanicity during upbringing and schizophrenia risk. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 1039–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, P., & Kapur, S. (2000). Schizophrenia: More dopamine, more D2 receptors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97(14), 7673–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.14.7673Google ScholarPubMed
Selten, J. P., & Cantor-Graae, E. (2005). Social defeat: Risk factor for schizophrenia? British Journal of Psychiatry, 187, 101–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.187.2.101CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selten, J. P., & Cantor-Graae, E. (2007). Hypothesis: Social defeat is a risk factor for schizophrenia? British Journal of Psychiatry, 51(Suppl.), s912. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.191.51.s9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selten, J. P., Cantor-Graae, E., & Kahn, R. S. (2007). Migration and schizophrenia. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(2), 111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e328017f68eCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Selten, J. P., van der Ven, E., Rutten, B. P. F., & Cantor-Graae, E. (2013). The social defeat hypothesis of schizophrenia: An update. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39(6), 1180–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt134CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharpley, M. S., Hutchinson, G., McKenzie, K., & Murray, R. M. (2001). Understanding the excess of psychosis among the African-Caribbean population in England: Review of current hypotheses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 178(Suppl. 40), s608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, R. J., Atkin, K., Bécares, L., Albor, C. B., Stafford, M., Kiernan, K. E., … Pickett, K. E. (2012). Impact of ethnic density on adult mental disorders: Narrative review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 201(1), 1119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.083675CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shevlin, M., Houston, J. E., Dorahy, M. J., & Adamson, G. (2008). Cumulative traumas and psychosis: An analysis of the National Comorbidity Survey and the British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(1), 193–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbm069Google ScholarPubMed
Silver, E., Mulvey, E., & Swanson, J. (2002). Neighbourhood structural characteristics and mental disorder: Faris and Dunham revisited. Social Science and Medicine, 55(8), 1457–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00266-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soares, J. C., & Innis, R. B. (1999). Neurochemical brain imaging investigations of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 46(5), 600–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(99)00015-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spauwen, J., & van Os, J. (2006). The psychosis proneness: Psychosis persistence model as an explanation for the association between urbanicity and psychosis. Epidemiologia e Psichiatria Sociale, 15(4), 252–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1121189X00002128Google ScholarPubMed
Steen, R. G., Mull, C., McClure, R., Hamer, R. M., & Lieberman, J. A. (2006). Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 510–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.188.6.510CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susser, E., St. Clair, D., & He, L. (2008). Latent effects of prenatal malnutrition on adult health: The example of schizophrenia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136, 185–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1425.024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United Nations (2014). World urbanization prospects (rev. ed.). Retrieved from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Google Scholar
van Erp, T. G. M., Saleh, P. A., Huttunen, M., Lönnqvist, J., Kaprio, J., Salonen, O., … Cannon, T. D. (2004). Hippocampal volumes in schizophrenic twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 346–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.346CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V., & Vollebergh, W. (2001). Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: An urban-rural comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(7), 663–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.7.663CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Os, J., Kenis, G., & Rutten, B. P. (2010). The environment and schizophrenia. Nature, 468(7321), 203–12. http://dx.doi.org/1038/nature09563CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Winkel, R., Henquet, C., Rosa, A., Papiol, S., Fananas, L., De Hert, M., … Myin-Germeys, I. (2008). Evidence that the COMT(Val158Met) polymorphism moderates sensitivity to stress in psychosis: An experience-sampling study. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B(1), 1017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.30559CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Winkel, R., van Nierop, M., Myin-Germeys, I., & van Os, J. (2013). Chiildhood trauma as a cause of psychosis: Linking genes, psychology, and biology. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(1), 4451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E., Mittal, V., & Tessner, K. (2008). Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annual Reviews of Clinical Psychology, 4, 189216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141248CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E. F., & Diforio, D. (1997). Schizophrenia: A neural diathesis-stress model. Psychological Review, 104(4), 667–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.104.4.667CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitley, R., & McKenzie, K. (2005). Social capital and psychiatry: Review of the literature. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 13(2), 7184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10673220590956474CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiles, N. J., Zammit, S., Bebbington, P., Singleton, N., Meltzer, H., & Lewis, G. (2006). Self-reported psychotic symptoms in the general population: Results from the longitudinal study of the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 519–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.105.012179CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, J., Turkington, D., Kingdon, D., & Ramirez Basco, M. (2009). Cognitive-behavior therapy for severe mental illness: An illustrated guide. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×