Psychopharmacology of the Main Psychotropic Drug Groups

Aan Het Rot, M, Zarate, CA Jr, Charney, DS, Mathew, SJ (2012). Ketamine for depression: where do we go from here? Biol Psychiatry, 72(7), 537–547. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.05.003.CrossRef Google Scholar

Aberg-Wistedt, A, Agren, H, Ekselius, L, Bengtsson, F, Akerblad, AC (2000). Sertraline versus paroxetine in major depression: clinical outcome after six months of continuous therapy. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 20, 645–652.Google Scholar

Adli, M, Baethge, C, Heinz, A, Langlitz, N, Bauer, M (2005). Is dose escalation of antidepressants a rational strategy after a medium-dose treatment has failed? A systematic review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 255, 387–400.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Akerblad, AC, Bengtsson, F, von Knorring, L, Ekselius, L (2006). Response, remission and relapse in relation to adherence in primary care treatment of depression: a 2-year outcome study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 21, 117–124.Google Scholar

Alvarez, E, Perez, V, Artigas, F (2014). Pharmacology and clinical potential of vortioxetine in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 10, 1297–1307.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Anderson, IM (2000). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability. J Affect Disord, 58, 19–36.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Anderson, IM (2001). Meta-analytical studies on new antidepressants. Br Med Bull, 57, 161–178.Google Scholar

Anderson, IM (2003). Drug treatment of depression: reflections on the evidence. Adv Psychiatr Treat, 9, 11–20.CrossRef Google Scholar

Anglin, R, Yuan, Y, Moayyedi, P, et al. (2014). Risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors with or without concurrent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol, 109(6), 811–819. doi:10.1038/ajg.2014.82.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Angst, J, Scheidegger, P, Stabl, M (1993). Efficacy of moclobemide in different patient groups. Results of new subscales of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. Clin Neuropharmacol, 16(Suppl 2), S55–S62.Google Scholar PubMed

Angst, J, Gamma, A, Bowden, CL, et al. (2012). Diagnostic criteria for bipolarity based on an international sample of 5,635 patients with DSM-IV major depressive episodes. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 262(1), 3–11. doi:10.1007/s00406-011-0228-0.CrossRef Google Scholar

Appelberg, BG, Syvalahti, EK, Koskinen, TE, et al. (2001). Patients with severe depression may benefit from buspirone augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: results from a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, placebo wash-in study. J Clin Psychiatry, 62, 448–452.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Aronson, R, Offman, HJ, Joffe, RT, Naylor, CD (1996). Triiodothyronine augmentation in the treatment of refractory depression. A meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 53, 842–848.Google Scholar

Bair, MJ, Robinson, RL, Eckert, GJ, et al. (2004). Impact of pain on depression treatment response in primary care. Psychosom Med, 66, 17–22.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Baldessarini, RJ, Tondo, L, Ghiana, C, Lepri, B (2010). Illness risk following rapid versus gradual discontinuation of antidepressants. Am J Psychiatry, 167, 934–994.Google Scholar

Baldwin, DS, Anderson, IM, Nutt, DJ, et al. (2005). Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 19, 567–596.Google Scholar

Barbee, JG, Thompson, TR, Jamhour, NJ, et al. (2011). A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of lamotrigine as an antidepressant augmentation agent in treatment-refractory unipolar depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 72(10), 1405–1412. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05355gre.Google Scholar

Barbosa, L, Berk, M, Vorster, M (2003). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of augmentation with lamotrigine or placebo in patients concomitantly treated with fluoxetine for resistant major depressive episodes. J Clin Psychiatry, 64, 403–407.Google Scholar

Bateman, DN (2003). Poisonous substances: antidepressants. Medicine, 31, 32–34.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bauer, M, Dell’osso, L, Kasper, S, et al. (2013). Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy and quetiapine XR or lithium as add-on to antidepressants in patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord, 151(1), 209–219. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.05.079.Google Scholar

Bauer, M, Adli, M, Ricken, R, Severus, E, Pilhatsch, M (2014). Role of lithium augmentation in the management of major depressive disorder. CNS Drugs, 28(4), 331–342. doi:10.1007/s40263-014-0152-8.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Baumann, P, Ulrich, S, Eckermann, G, et al. (2005). The AGNP-TDM Expert Group Consensus Guidelines: focus on therapeutic monitoring of antidepressants. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 7, 231–247.Google Scholar

Berman, RM, Marcus, RN, Swanink, R, et al. (2007). The efficacy and safety of aripiprazole as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry, 68, 843–853.Google Scholar

Birkenhager, TK, van den Broek, WW, Moleman, P, Bruijn, JA (2006). Outcome of a 4-step treatment algorithm for depressed inpatients. J Clin Psychiatry, 67, 1266–1271.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Blier, P, Gobbi, G, Turcotte, JE, et al. (2009). Mirtazapine and paroxetine in major depression: a comparison of monotherapy versus their combination from treatment initiation. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 19(7), 457–465.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Blier, P, Ward, HE, Tremblay, P, et al. (2010). Combination of antidepressant medications from treatment initiation for major depressive disorder: a double-blind randomized study. Am J Psychiatry, 167(3), 281–288.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bridge, JA, Iyengar, S, Salary, CB, et al. (2007). Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA, 297, 1683–1696.Google Scholar

Brown, WA (2007). Treatment response in melancholia. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 115(Suppl 433), 125–129.Google Scholar

Bryant, SG, Fisher, S, Kluge, RM (1987). Long-term versus short-term amitriptyline side effects as measured by a postmarketing surveillance system. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 7, 78–82.Google Scholar

Buckley, NA, McManus, PR (2002). Fatal toxicity of serotoninergic and other antidepressant drugs: analysis of United Kingdom mortality data. BMJ, 325, 1332–1333.Google Scholar

Bukh, JD, Bock, C, Vinberg, M, Kessing, LV (2013). The effect of prolonged duration of untreated depression on antidepressant treatment outcome. J Affect Disord, 145(1), 42–48. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.07.008.Google Scholar

Bump, GM, Mulsant, BH, Pollock, BG, et al. (2001). Paroxetine versus nortriptyline in the continuation and maintenance treatment of depression in the elderly. Depress Anxiety, 13, 38–44.Google Scholar

Burke, WJ, Gergel, I, Bose, A (2002). Fixed-dose trial of the single isomer SSRI escitalopram in depressed outpatients. J Clin Psychiatry, 63, 331–336.Google Scholar

Byrne, SE, Rothschild, AJ (1998). Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments. J Clin Psychiatry, 59, 279–288.Google Scholar

Canuso, CM, Singh, JB, Fedgchin, M, et al. (2018). Efficacy and safety of intranasal esketamine for the rapid reduction of symptoms of depression and suicidality in patients at imminent risk for suicide: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry, 175, 620–630. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17060720.Google Scholar

Carpenter, LL, Yasmin, S, Price, LH (2002). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of antidepressant augmentation with mirtazapine. Biol Psychiatry, 51, 183–188.Google Scholar

Castro, VM, Clements, CC, Murphy, SN, et al. (2013). QT interval and antidepressant use: a cross sectional study of electronic health records. BMJ, 346, f288. doi:10.1136/bmj.f288.Google Scholar

Cheeta, S, Schifano, F, Oyefeso, A, Webb, L, Ghodse, AH (2004). Antidepressant-related deaths and antidepressant prescriptions in England and Wales, 1998–2000. Br J Psychiatry, 184, 41–47.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cheng, YL, Hu, HY, Lin, XH, et al. (2015). Use of SSRI, but not SNRI, increased upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Taiwan. Medicine (Baltimore), 94(46), e2022. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000002022.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Hawton, K, Stockton, S, Geddes, JR (2013). Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 346, f3646. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f3646.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cipriani, A, Furukawa, TA, Salanti, G, et al. (2018). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet, 391(10128), 1357–1366.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cleare, A, Pariante, CM, Young, AH, et al. (2015). Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacology, 29(5), 459–525.Google Scholar

Cramer, JA, Rosenheck, R (1998). Compliance with medication regimens for mental and physical disorders. Psychiatr Serv, 49, 196–201.Google Scholar

Crossley, NA, Bauer, M (2007). Acceleration and augmentation of antidepressants with lithium for depressive disorders: two meta-analyses of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry, 68, 935–940.Google Scholar

Dawson, R, Lavori, PW, Coryell, WH, Endicott, J, Keller, MB (1998). Maintenance strategies for unipolar depression: an observational study of levels of treatment and recurrence. J Affect Disord, 49, 31–44.Google Scholar

de Abajo, FJ, Garcia-Rodriguez, LA (2008). Risk of upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and venlafaxine therapy: interaction with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and effect of acid-suppressing agents. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 65, 795–803.Google Scholar

Delgado, PL (2004). Common pathways of depression and pain. J Clin Psychiatry, 65(Suppl 12), 16–19.Google Scholar

Delgado, PL, Brannan, SK, Mallinckrodt, CH, et al. (2005). Sexual functioning assessed in 4 double-blind placebo- and paroxetine-controlled trials of duloxetine for major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 686–692.Google Scholar

Demyttenaere, K, Albert, A, Mesters, P, et al. (2005). What happens with adverse events during 6 months of treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors? J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 859–863.Google Scholar

Detke, MJ, Wiltse, CG, Mallinckrodt, CH, et al. (2004). Duloxetine in the acute and long-term treatment of major depressive disorder: a placebo- and paroxetine-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 14, 457–470.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

DeVeaugh-Geiss, AM, West, SL, Miller, WC, et al. (2010). The adverse effects of comorbid pain on depression outcomes in primary care patients: results from the ARTIST trial. Pain Med, 11(5), 732–741. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2010.00830.x.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dombrovski, AY, Mulsant, BH, Houck, PR, et al. (2007). Residual symptoms and recurrence during maintenance treatment of late-life depression. J Affect Disord, 103, 77–82.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dornseif, BE, Dunlop, SR, Potvin, JH, Wernicke, JF (1989). Effect of dose escalation after low-dose fluoxetine therapy. Psychopharmacol Bull, 25, 71–79.Google Scholar

Dotoli, D, Spagnolo, C, Bongiorno, F, et al. (2006). Relapse during a 6-month continuation treatment with fluvoxamine in an Italian population: the role of clinical, psychosocial and genetic variables. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 30, 442–448.CrossRef Google Scholar

Dubini, A, Bosc, M, Polin, V (1997). Noradrenaline-selective versus serotonin-selective antidepressant therapy: differential effects on social functioning. J Psychopharmacol, 11, S17–S23.Google Scholar PubMed

Edwards, JG, Anderson, I (1999). Systematic review and guide to selection of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Drugs, 57(4), 507–533.Google Scholar

El-Khalili, N, Joyce, M, Atkinson, S, et al. (2010). Extended-release quetiapine fumerate (quetiapine XR) as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder (MDD) in patients with an inadequate response to ongoing antidepressant treatment: a multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 13, 917–932.Google Scholar

Ezquiaga, E, Garcia, A, Bravo, F, Pallares, T (1998). Factors associated with outcome in major depression: a 6-month prospective study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 33, 552–557.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fava, GA, Ruini, C, Rafanelli, C, Grandi, S (2002). Cognitive behavior approach to loss of clinical effect during long-term antidepressant treatment: a pilot study. Am J Psychiatry, 159, 2094–2095.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fava, M, Rappe, SM, Pava, JA, et al. (1995). Relapse in patients on long-term fluoxetine treatment: response to increased fluoxetine dose. J Clin Psychiatry, 56, 52–55.Google Scholar

Fava, M, Uebelacker, LA, Alpert, JE, et al. (1997). Major depressive subtypes and treatment response. Biol Psychiatry, 42, 568–576.Google Scholar

Fava, M, Detke, MJ, Balestrieri, M, et al. (2006). Management of depression relapse: re-initiation of duloxetine treatment or dose increase. J Psychiatr Res, 40, 328–336.Google Scholar

Fava, M, Thase, ME, DeBattista, C, et al. (2007). Modafinil augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor therapy in MDD partial responders with persistent fatigue and sleepiness. Ann Clin Psychiatry, 19, 153–159.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fekadu, A, Wooderson, S, Donaldson, C, et al. (2009). A multidimensional tool to quantify treatment resistance in depression: the Maudsley staging method. J Clin Psychiatry, 70, 177–184.Google Scholar

Fekadu, A, Donocik, J, Cleare, AJ (2018). Standardisation framework for the Maudsley staging method for treatment resistance in depression. BMC Psychiatry, 18, 100. Available at: https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1679-x.Google Scholar

Fergusson, D, Doucette, S, Glass, KC, et al. (2005). Association between suicide attempts and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: systematic review of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 330, 396.Google Scholar

Ferreri, M, Lavergne, F, Berlin, I, Payan, C, Puech, AJ (2001). Benefits from mianserin augmentation of fluoxetine in patients with major depression non-responders to fluoxetine alone. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 103, 66–72.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Flint, AJ, Rifat, SL (1998). Two-year outcome of psychotic depression in late life. Am J Psychiatry, 155, 178–183.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fond, G, Loundou, A, Rabu, C, et al. (2014). Ketamine administration in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 231(18), 3663–3676. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3664-5.Google Scholar

Franchini, L, Gasperini, M, Zanardi, R, Smeraldi, E (2000a). Four-year follow-up study of sertraline and fluvoxamine in long-term treatment of unipolar subjects with high recurrence rate. J Affect Disord, 58, 233–236.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Franchini, L, Rossini, D, Bongiorno, F, et al. (2000b). Will a second prophylactic treatment with a higher dosage of the same antidepressant either prevent or delay new depressive episodes? Psychiatry Res, 96, 81–85.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Frank, E, Kupfer, DJ, Perel, JM, et al. (1990). Three-year outcomes for maintenance therapies in recurrent depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 47, 1093–1099.Google Scholar

Frank, E, Kupfer, DJ, Perel, JM, et al. (1993). Comparison of full-dose versus half-dose pharmacotherapy in the maintenance treatment of recurrent depression. J Affect Disord, 27, 139–145.Google Scholar

Furukawa, TA, McGuire, H, Barbui, C (2002). Meta-analysis of effects and side effects of low dosage tricyclic antidepressants in depression: systematic review. BMJ, 325, 991.Google Scholar

Geddes, JR, Carney, SM, Davies, C, et al. (2003). Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review. Lancet, 361, 653–661.Google Scholar

Ghaziuddin, M, Ghaziuddin, N, Stein, GS (1990). Life events and the recurrence of depression. Can J Psychiatry, 35, 239–242.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gibbons, RD, Brown, CH, Hur, K, et al. (2007). Early evidence on the effects of regulators’ suicidality warnings on SSRI prescriptions and suicide in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry, 164, 1356–1363.Google Scholar

Gijsman, HJ, Geddes, JR, Rendell, JM, et al. (2004). Antidepressants for bipolar depression: a systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. Am J Psychiatry, 161 1537–1547.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Goldstein, DJ, Lu, Y, Detke, MJ, et al. (2004). Duloxetine in the treatment of depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled comparison with paroxetine. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 24, 389–399.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Goodwin, GM, Haddad, PM, Ferrier, IN, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30(6), 495–553.Google Scholar

Greden, JF (1993). Antidepressant maintenance medications: when to discontinue and how to stop. J Clin Psychiatry, 54 Suppl, 39–45.Google Scholar

Greist, J, McNamara, RK, Mallinckrodt, CH, Rayamajhi, JN, Raskin, J (2004). Incidence and duration of antidepressant-induced nausea: duloxetine compared with paroxetine and fluoxetine. Clin Ther, 26, 1446–1455.Google Scholar

Gunnell, D, Saperia, J, Ashby, D (2005). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and suicide in adults: meta-analysis of drug company data from placebo controlled, randomised controlled trials submitted to the MHRA’s safety review. BMJ, 330, 385.Google Scholar

Guo, T, Xiang, YT, Xiao, L, et al. (2015). Measurement-based care versus standard care for major depression: a randomized controlled trial with blind raters. Am J Psychiatry, 172(10), 1004–1013.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gusmao, R, Quintao, S, McDaid, D, et al. (2013). Antidepressant utilization and suicide in Europe: an ecological multi-national study. PLoS One, 8, e66455.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Anderson, IM (2002). Antipsychotic-related QTc prolongation, torsade de pointes and sudden death. Drugs, 62, 1649–1671.Google Scholar

Halperin, D, Reber, G (2007). Influence of antidepressants on hemostasis. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 9, 47–59.Google Scholar

Hammerlein, A, Derendorf, H, Lowenthal, DT (1998). Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic changes in the elderly. Clinical implications. Clin Pharmacokinet, 35, 49–64.Google Scholar

Hansen, R, Gaynes, B, Thieda, P, et al. (2008). Meta-analysis of major depressive disorder relapse and recurrence with second-generation antidepressants. Psychiatr Serv, 59(10), 1121–1130. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.59.10.1121.Google Scholar

Hawton, K, Bergen, H, Simkin, S, et al. (2010). Toxicity of antidepressants: rates of suicide relative to prescribing and non-fatal overdose. Br J Psychiatry, 196(5), 354–358. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.070219.Google Scholar

Healy, D, McMonagle, T (1997). The enhancement of social functioning as a therapeutic principle in the management of depression. J Psychopharmacol, 11, S25–S31.Google Scholar PubMed

Henkel, V, Mergl, R, Allgaier, AK, et al. (2006). Treatment of depression with atypical features: a meta-analytic approach. Psychiatry Res, 141, 89–101.Google Scholar

Hoffman, L, Enders, J, Luo, J, et al. (2003). Impact of an antidepressant management program on medication adherence. Am J Manag Care, 9, 70–80.Google Scholar

Howland, RH (2010). Potential adverse effects of discontinuing psychotropic drugs: part 2: antidepressant drugs. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv, 48, 9–12. doi:10.3928/02793695-20100527-98.Google Scholar

Iosifescu, DV, Nierenberg, AA, Alpert, JE, et al. (2004). Comorbid medical illness and relapse of major depressive disorder in the continuation phase of treatment. Psychosomatics, 45, 419–425.Google Scholar

Isbister, GK, Bowe, SJ, Dawson, A, Whyte, IM (2004). Relative toxicity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in overdose. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol, 42, 277–285.Google Scholar

Jacobsen, PL, Mahableshwarkar, AR, Palo, WA, et al. (2016). Treatment-emergent sexual dysfunction in randomized trials of vortioxetine for major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder: a pooled analysis. CNS Spectr, 21, 367–378.Google Scholar

Jick, H, Kaye, JA, Jick, SS (2004). Antidepressants and the risk of suicidal behaviors. JAMA, 292, 338–343.Google Scholar

Joint Formulary Committee (2018). British National Formulary, 75th ed. London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press.Google Scholar

Kanai, T, Takeuchi, H, Furukawa, TA, et al. (2003). Time to recurrence after recovery from major depressive episodes and its predictors. Psychol Med, 33, 839–845.Google Scholar

Karp, JF, Scott, J, Houck, P, et al. (2005). Pain predicts longer time to remission during treatment of recurrent depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 591–597.Google Scholar

Katz, MM, Tekell, JL, Bowden, CL, et al. (2004). Onset and early behavioral effects of pharmacologically different antidepressants and placebo in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 566–579.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV (1998). Recurrence in affective disorder. II. Effect of age and gender. Br J Psychiatry, 172, 29–34.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kessing, LV (2003). Subtypes of depressive episodes according to ICD-10: prediction of risk of relapse and suicide. Psychopathology, 36, 285–291.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV (2007). Epidemiology of subtypes of depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 433 Suppl, 85–89.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV, Andersen, PK (2005). Predictive effects of previous episodes on the risk of recurrence in depressive and bipolar disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 7, 413–420.Google Scholar

Kessler, D, Burns, A, Tallon, D, et al. (2018). Combining mirtazapine with SSRIs or SNRIs for treatment-resistant depression: the MIR RCT. Health Technol Assess, 22(63), 1–136.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Köhler-Forsberg, O, Lydholm, N, Hjorthøj, C, et al. (2019). Efficacy of anti-inflammatory treatment on major depressive disorder or depressive symptoms: meta-analysis of clinical trials. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 139, 404–419.CrossRef Google Scholar

Lader, M (1983). Combined use of tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. J Clin Psychiatry, 44, 20–24.Google Scholar PubMed

Lam, RW, Gorman, CP, Michalon, M, et al. (1995). Multicenter, placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine in seasonal affective disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 152, 1765–1770.Google Scholar

Landen, M, Bjorling, G, Agren, H, Fahlen, T (1998). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of buspirone in combination with an SSRI in patients with treatment-refractory depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 59, 664–668.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lee, P, Shu, L, Xu, X, et al. (2007). Once-daily duloxetine 60 mg in the treatment of major depressive disorder: multicenter, double-blind, randomized, paroxetine-controlled, non-inferiority trial in China, Korea, Taiwan and Brazil. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 61, 295–307.Google Scholar

Leinonen, E, Skarstein, J, Behnke, K, Agren, H, Helsdingen, JT (1999). Efficacy and tolerability of mirtazapine versus citalopram: a double-blind, randomized study in patients with major depressive disorder. Nordic Antidepressant Study Group. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 14, 329–337.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Hierl, S, Kissling, W, Dold, M, Davis, JM (2012). Putting the efficacy of psychiatric and general medicine medication into perspective: review of meta-analyses. Br J Psychiatry, 200(2), 97–106. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096594.Google Scholar

Leuchter, AF, Husain, MM, Cook, IA, et al. (2010). Painful physical symptoms and treatment outcome in major depressive disorder: a STAR*D (Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression) report. Psychol Med, 40(2), 239–251. doi:10.1017/S0033291709006035.Google Scholar

Licht, RW, Qvitzau, S (2002). Treatment strategies in patients with major depression not responding to first-line sertraline treatment. A randomised study of extended duration of treatment, dose increase or mianserin augmentation. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 161, 143–151.Google Scholar

Lonnqvist, J, Sihvo, S, Syvalahti, E, et al. (1995). Moclobemide and fluoxetine in the prevention of relapses following acute treatment of depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 91, 189–194.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Maes, M, Libbrecht, I, van Hunsel, F, Campens, D, Meltzer, HY (1999). Pindolol and mianserin augment the antidepressant activity of fluoxetine in hospitalized major depressed patients, including those with treatment resistance. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 19, 177–182.Google Scholar

Maidment, R, Livingston, G, Katona, C (2002). Just keep taking the tablets: adherence to antidepressant treatment in older people in primary care. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 17(8), 752–757.Google Scholar

Masand, PS, Gupta, S (2002). Long-term side effects of newer-generation antidepressants: SSRIs, venlafaxine, nefazodone, bupropion, and mirtazapine. Ann Clin Psychiatry, 14, 175–182.Google Scholar

Mazure, CM, Bruce, ML, Maciejewski, PK, Jacobs, SC (2000). Adverse life events and cognitive-personality characteristics in the prediction of major depression and antidepressant response. Am J Psychiatry, 157, 896–903.Google Scholar

McAllister-Williams, RH, Christmas, D, Cleare, AJ, et al. (2018). Multiple-therapy-resistant-major depressive disorder: a clinically important concept. Br J Psychiatry, 212(5), 274–278. doi:10.1192/bjp.2017.33.Google Scholar

McGirr, A, Berlim, MT, Bond, DJ, et al. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of ketamine in the rapid treatment of major depressive episodes. Psychol Med, 45(4), 693–704. doi:10.1017/S0033291714001603.Google Scholar

McGrath, PJ, Stewart, JW, Fava, M, et al. (2006a). Tranylcypromine versus venlafaxine plus mirtazapine following three failed antidepressant medication trials for depression: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1531–1541.Google Scholar

McGrath, PJ, Stewart, JW, Quitkin, FM, et al. (2006b). Predictors of relapse in a prospective study of fluoxetine treatment of major depression. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1542–1548.Google Scholar

McLaughlin, T, Hogue, SL, Stang, PE (2007). Once-daily bupropion associated with improved patient adherence compared with twice-daily bupropion in treatment of depression. Am J Ther, 14, 221–225.Google Scholar

Medhus, A, Heskestad, S, Tjemsland, L (1994). Mianserin added to tricyclic antidepressant in depressed patients not responding to a tricyclic antidepressant alone. A randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Nord J Psychiatry, 48, 355–358.Google Scholar

Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (2011). Citalopram and escitalopram: QT interval prolongation (online). Available at: www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/citalopram-and-escitalopram-qt-interval-prolongation (last accessed 16.10.19).Google Scholar

Melander, H, Salmonson, T, Abadie, E, et al. (2008). A regulatory Apologia – a review of placebo-controlled studies in regulatory submissions of new-generation antidepressants. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 18(9), 623–627.Google Scholar

Modell, JG, Rosenthal, NE, Harriett, AE, et al. (2005). Seasonal affective disorder and its prevention by anticipatory treatment with bupropion XL. Biol Psychiatry, 58, 658–667.Google Scholar

Montgomery, SA, Reimitz, PE, Zivkov, M (1998). Mirtazapine versus amitriptyline in the long-term treatment of depression: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 13, 63–67.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Morgan, ML, Cook, IA, Rapkin, AJ, Leuchter, AF (2005). Estrogen augmentation of antidepressants in perimenopausal depression: a pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 774–780.Google Scholar

Morgan, O, Griffiths, C, Baker, A, Majeed, A (2004). Fatal toxicity of antidepressants in England and Wales, 1993–2002. Health Stat Q, 23, 18–24.Google Scholar

Moscovitch, A, Blashko, CA, Eagles, JM, et al. (2004). A placebo-controlled study of sertraline in the treatment of outpatients with seasonal affective disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 171, 390–397.Google Scholar

Mueller, TI, Leon, AC, Keller, MB, et al. (1999). Recurrence after recovery from major depressive disorder during 15 years of observational follow-up. Am J Psychiatry, 156, 1000–1006.Google Scholar

Murrough, JW, Iosifescu, DV, Chang, LC, et al. (2013a). Antidepressant efficacy of ketamine in treatment-resistant major depression: a two-site randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 170(10), 1134–1142. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13030392.Google Scholar

Murrough, JW, Perez, AM, Pillemer, S, et al. (2013b). Rapid and longer-term antidepressant effects of repeated ketamine infusions in treatment-resistant major depression. Biol Psychiatry, 74(4), 250–256. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.022.Google Scholar

National Institute for Clinical Excellence (2004). Depression: the management of depression in primary and secondary care. Clinical guideline [CG23]. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg23 (last accessed 20.10.19).Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) (2009). Depression in adults: the treatment and management of depression in adults (update). Clinical guideline [CG90]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg90/chapter/1-guidance (last accessed 16.10.19).Google Scholar

Nelson, JC, Papakostas, GI (2009). Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. Am J Psychiatry, 166(9), 980–991. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030312.Google Scholar

Nelson, JC, Portera, L, Leon, AC (2005a). Are there differences in the symptoms that respond to a selective serotonin or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor? Biol Psychiatry, 57, 1535–1542.Google Scholar

Nelson, JC, Portera, L, Leon, AC (2005b). Residual symptoms in depressed patients after treatment with fluoxetine or reboxetine. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 1409–1414.Google Scholar

Nierenberg, AA, McLean, NE, Alpert, JE, et al. (1995). Early nonresponse to fluoxetine as a predictor of poor 8-week outcome. Am J Psychiatry, 152, 1500–1503.Google Scholar PubMed

Nierenberg, AA, Farabaugh, AH, Alpert, JE, et al. (2000). Timing of onset of antidepressant response with fluoxetine treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 157, 1423–1428.Google Scholar

Nierenberg, AA, Fava, M, Trivedi, MH, et al. (2006). A comparison of lithium and T(3) augmentation following two failed medication treatments for depression: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1519–1530.Google Scholar

Nurnberg, H, Hensley, PL, Heiman, JR, et al. (2008). Sildenafil treatment of women with antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 300, 395–404.Google Scholar

Ohayon, MM, Schatzberg, AF (2003). Using chronic pain to predict depressive morbidity in the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 60, 39–47.Google Scholar

Okuda, A, Suzuki, T, Kishi, T, et al. (2010). Duration of untreated illness and antidepressant fluvoxamine response in major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 64(3), 268–273. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2010.02091.x.Google Scholar

Pacchiarotti, I, Bond, DJ, Baldessarini, RJ, et al. (2013). The International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) task force report on antidepressant use in bipolar disorders. Am J Psychiatry, 170(11), 1249–1262. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020185.Google Scholar

Papakostas, GI, Fava, M, Thase, ME (2008). Treatment of SSRI-resistant depression: a meta-analysis comparing within- versus across-class switches. Biol Psychiatry, 63(7), 699–704.Google Scholar

Parker, G (2000). Classifying depression: should paradigms lost be regained? Am J Psychiatry, 157, 1195–1203.Google Scholar

Partonen, T, Lonnqvist, J (1996). Moclobemide and fluoxetine in treatment of seasonal affective disorder. J Affect Disord, 41, 93–99.Google Scholar

Paykel, ES, Tanner, J (1976). Life events, depressive relapse and maintenance treatment. Psychol Med, 6, 481–485.Google Scholar

Paykel, ES, Ramana, R, Cooper, Z, et al. (1995). Residual symptoms after partial remission: an important outcome in depression. Psychol Med, 25, 1171–1180.Google Scholar

Perahia, DG, Wang, F, Mallinckrodt, CH, Walker, DJ, Detke, MJ (2006). Duloxetine in the treatment of major depressive disorder: a placebo- and paroxetine-controlled trial. Eur Psychiatry, 21, 367–378.Google Scholar

Perahia, DG, Pritchett, YL, Kajdasz, DK, et al. (2008). A randomized, double-blind comparison of duloxetine and venlafaxine in the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder. J Psychiatr Res, 42, 22–34.Google Scholar

Petersen, I, Gilbert, RE, Evans, SJ, Man, SL, Nazareth, I (2011). Pregnancy as a major determinant for discontinuation of antidepressants: an analysis of data from The Health Improvement Network. J Clin Psychiatry, 72(7), 979–985. doi:10.4088/JCP.10m06090blu.Google Scholar

Pope, HG Jr, Cohane, GH, Kanayama, G, Siegel, AJ, Hudson, JI (2003). Testosterone gel supplementation for men with refractory depression: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 160(1), 105–111.Google Scholar

Pope, HG, Amiaz, R, Brennan, BP, et al. (2010). Parallel-group placebo-controlled trial of testosterone gel in men with major depressive disorder displaying an incomplete response to standard antidepressant treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 30(2), 126–134. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181d207ca.Google Scholar

Posternak, MA, Zimmerman, M (2005). Is there a delay in the antidepressant effect? A meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 148–158.Google Scholar

Posternak, MA, Zimmerman, M (2007). Therapeutic effect of follow-up assessments on antidepressant and placebo response rates in antidepressant efficacy trials: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 190, 287–292.Google Scholar

Posternak, MA, Solomon, DA, Leon, AC, et al. (2006). The naturalistic course of unipolar major depression in the absence of somatic therapy. J Nerv Ment Dis, 194, 324–329.Google Scholar

Quitkin, FM, Petkova, E, McGrath, PJ, et al. (2003). When should a trial of fluoxetine for major depression be declared failed? Am J Psychiatry, 160, 734–740.Google Scholar

Raison, CL, Rutherford, RE, Woolwine, BJ, et al. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of the tumor necrosis factor antagonist infliximab for treatment-resistant depression: the role of baseline inflammatory biomarkers. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(1), 31–41. doi:10.1001/2013.jamapsychiatry.4.Google Scholar

Ramana, R, Paykel, ES, Cooper, Z, et al. (1995). Remission and relapse in major depression: a two-year prospective follow-up study. Psychol Med, 25, 1161–1170.Google Scholar

Reimherr, FW, Amsterdam, JD, Quitkin, FM, et al. (1998). Optimal length of continuation therapy in depression: a prospective assessment during long-term fluoxetine treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 155, 1247–1253.Google Scholar

Reimherr, FW, Strong, RE, Marchant, BK, Hedges, DW, Wender, PH (2001). Factors affecting return of symptoms 1 year after treatment in a 62-week controlled study of fluoxetine in major depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 62(Suppl 22), 16–23.Google Scholar

Reis, M, Aamo, T, Spigset, O, Ahlner, J (2009). Serum concentrations of antidepressant drugs in a naturalistic setting: compilation based on a large therapeutic drug monitoring database. Ther Drug Monit, 31(1), 42–56. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e31819114ea.Google Scholar

Reynolds, CF, III, Perel, JM, Frank, E, et al. (1999). Three-year outcomes of maintenance nortriptyline treatment in late-life depression: a study of two fixed plasma levels. Am J Psychiatry, 156, 1177–1181.Google Scholar

Reynolds, CF, III, Dew, MA, Pollock, BG, et al. (2006). Maintenance treatment of major depression in old age. N Engl J Med, 354, 1130–1138.Google Scholar

Robinson, P, Katon, W, Von Korff, M, et al. (1997). The education of depressed primary care patients: what do patients think of interactive booklets and a video?J Fam Pract, 44, 562–571.Google Scholar

Rojo, JE, Ros, S, Aguera, L, de la Gandara, J, de Pedro, JM (2005). Combined antidepressants: clinical experience. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl, 428, 25–31.Google Scholar

Ronalds, C, Creed, F, Stone, K, Webb, S, Tomenson, B (1997). The outcome of anxiety and depressive disorders in general practice. Br J Psychiatry, 171, 427–433.Google Scholar

Rouillon, F, Serrurier, D, Miller, HD, Gerard, MJ (1991). Prophylactic efficacy of maprotiline on unipolar depression relapse. J Clin Psychiatry, 52, 423–431.Google Scholar

Rudolph, RL, Fabre, LF, Feighner, JP, et al. (1998). A randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-response trial of venlafaxine hydrochloride in the treatment of major depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 59, 116–122.Google Scholar

Ruhe, HG, Huyser, J, Swinkels, JA, Schene, AH (2006). Switching antidepressants after a first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in major depressive disorder: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry, 67, 1836–1855.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, Trivedi, MH, Wisniewski, SR, et al. (2006a). Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1905–1917.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, Trivedi, MH, Wisniewski, SR, et al. (2006b). Bupropion-SR, sertraline or venlafaxine-XR after failure of SSRIs for depression. N Engl J Med, 354, 1231–1242.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, Trivedi, MH, Stewart, JW, et al. (2011). Combining medications to enhance depression outcomes (CO-MED): acute and long-term outcomes of a single-blind randomized study. Am J Psychiatry, 168, 689–701.Google Scholar

Sachs, GS, Nierenberg, AA, Calabrese, JR, et al. (2007). Effectiveness of adjunctive antidepressant treatment for bipolar depression. N Engl J Med, 356(17), 1711–1722.Google Scholar

Sansone, RA, Sansone, LA (2012). Antidepressant adherence: are patients taking their medications? Innov Clin Neurosci, 9(5–6), 41–46.Google Scholar

Schindler, F, Anghelescu, IG (2007). Lithium versus lamotrigine augmentation in treatment resistant unipolar depression: a randomized, open-label study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 22, 179–182.Google Scholar

Schmidt, ME, Fava, M, Zhang, S, et al. (2002). Treatment approaches to major depressive disorder relapse. Part 1: dose increase. Psychother Psychosom, 71, 90–94.Google Scholar

Schueler, Y-B, Koesters, M, Wieseler, B, et al. (2011). A systematic review of duloxetine and venlafaxine in major depression, including unpublished data. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 123, 247–265.Google Scholar

Schweizer, E, Rynn, M, Mandos, LA, et al. (2001). The antidepressant effect of sertraline is not enhanced by dose titration: results from an outpatient clinical trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 16, 137–143.CrossRef Google Scholar

Servier Laboratories Limited (2012). SPC for Valdoxan.Google Scholar

Simon, GE, Savarino, J (2007). Suicide attempts among patients starting depression treatment with medications or psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry, 164, 1029–1034.Google Scholar

Simon, GE, Savarino, J, Operskalski, B, Wang, PS (2006). Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 41–47.Google Scholar

Solomon, DA, Keller, MB, Leon, AC, et al. (2000). Multiple recurrences of major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 157, 229–233.Google Scholar

Solomon, DA, Leon, AC, Mueller, TI, et al. (2005). Tachyphylaxis in unipolar major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 283–290.Google Scholar

Spielmans, GI, Berman, MI, Linardatos, E, et al. (2013). Adjunctive atypical antipsychotic treatment for major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of depression, quality of life, and safety outcomes. PLoS Med, 10(3), e1001403.Google Scholar

Spina, E, Santoro, V, D’Arrigo, C (2008). Clinically relevant pharmacokinetic drug interactions with second-generation antidepressants: an update. Clin Ther, 30(7), 1206–1227.Google Scholar

Stassen, HH, Angst, J, Delini-Stula, A (1996). Delayed onset of action of antidepressant drugs? Survey of results of Zurich meta-analyses. Pharmacopsychiatry, 29, 87–96.Google Scholar

Strawbridge, R, Carter, B, Marwood, L, et al. (2019). Augmentation therapies for treatment-resistant depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 214(1), 42–51. doi:10.1192/bjp.2018.233.Google Scholar

Suppes, T, Silva, R, Cucchiaro, J, et al. (2016). Lurasidone for the treatment of major depressive disorder with mixed features: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry, 173, 400–407.Google Scholar

Szegedi, A, Muller, MJ, Anghelescu, I, et al. (2003). Early improvement under mirtazapine and paroxetine predicts later stable response and remission with high sensitivity in patients with major depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 64, 413–420.Google Scholar

Targownik, LE, Bolton, JM, Metge, CJ, Leung, S, Sareen, J (2009). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are associated with a modest increase in the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol, 104(6), 1475–1482. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.128.Google Scholar

Taylor, D, Cornelius, V, Smith, L, Young, AH (2014). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of drug treatments for bipolar depression: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 130(6), 452–469. doi:10.1111/acps.12343.Google Scholar

Taylor, D, Barnes, TRE, Young, A (2018). The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines in Psychiatry, 13th ed. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar

Taylor, MJ, Freemantle, N, Geddes, JR, Bhagwagar, Z (2006). Early onset of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressant action: systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63, 1217–1223.Google Scholar

Taylor, MJ, Rudkin, L, Bullemor-Day, P, et al. (2013). Strategies for managing sexual dysfunction induced by antidepressant medication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD003382. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003382.pub3.Google Scholar

Thanacoody, HK, Thomas, SH (2005). Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning: cardiovascular toxicity. Toxicol Rev, 24, 205–214.Google Scholar

Thase, ME (2006). Preventing relapse and recurrence of depression: a brief review of therapeutic options. CNS Spectr, 11, 12–21.Google Scholar

Thase, ME, Trivedi, MH, Rush, AJ (1995). MAOIs in the contemporary treatment of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 12, 185–219.Google Scholar

Thase, ME, Shelton, RC, Khan, A (2006). Treatment with venlafaxine extended release after SSRI nonresponse or intolerance: a randomized comparison of standard- and higher-dosing strategies. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 26, 250–258.Google Scholar

Thase, ME, Larsen, KG, Reines, E, Kennedy, SH (2013). The cardiovascular safety profile of escitalopram. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 23(11), 1391–1400. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.05.011.Google Scholar

Thase, ME, Mahableshwarkar, AR, Dragheim, M, Loft, H, Vieta, E (2016). A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of vortioxetine for the treatment of major depressive disorder in adults. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 26, 979–993.Google Scholar

Tint, A, Haddad, PM, Anderson, IM (2008). The effect of rate of antidepressant tapering on the incidence of discontinuation symptoms: a randomised study. J Psychopharmacol, 22(3), 330–332.Google Scholar

Tomaszewska, W, Peselow, ED, Barouche, F, Fieve, RR (1996). Antecedent life events, social supports and response to antidepressants in depressed patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 94, 352–357.Google Scholar

Trivedi, MH, Fava, M, Wisniewski, SR, et al. (2006a). Medication augmentation after the failure of SSRIs for depression. N Engl J Med, 354, 1243–1252.Google Scholar

Trivedi, MH, Rush, AJ, Wisniewski, SR, et al. (2006b). Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 28–40.Google Scholar

Uher, R, Maier, W, Hauser, J, et al. (2009). Differential efficacy of escitalopram and nortriptyline on dimensional measures of depression. Br J Psychiatry, 194, 252–259. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.057554.Google Scholar

Vallejo, J, Gasto, C, Catalan, R, Bulbena, A, Menchon, JM (1991). Predictors of antidepressant treatment outcome in melancholia: psychosocial, clinical and biological indicators. J Affect Disord, 21, 151–162.Google Scholar

Vergouwen, AC, Bakker, A, Katon, WJ, Verheij, TJ, Koerselman, F (2003). Improving adherence to antidepressants: a systematic review of interventions. J Clin Psychiatry, 64, 1415–1420.Google Scholar

Vieta, E, Bauer, M, Montgomery, S, et al. (2013). Pooled analysis of sustained response rates for extended release quetiapine fumarate as monotherapy or adjunct to antidepressant therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord, 150(2), 639–643. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.01.052.Google Scholar

Walsh, BT, Seidman, SN, Sysko, R, Gould, M (2002). Placebo response in studies of major depression: variable, substantial, and growing. JAMA, 287, 1840–1847.Google Scholar

Walters, G, Reynolds, CF, III, Mulsant, BH, Pollock, BG (1999). Continuation and maintenance pharmacotherapy in geriatric depression: an open-trial comparison of paroxetine and nortriptyline in patients older than 70 years. J Clin Psychiatry, 60(Suppl 20), 21–25.Google Scholar

Walther, A, Breidenstein, J, Miller, R (2019). Association of testosterone treatment with alleviation of depressive symptoms in men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(1), 31–40. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.2734.Google Scholar

Warden, D, Rush, AJ, Trivedi, MH, Fava, M, Wisniewski, SR (2007). The STAR*D Project results: a comprehensive review of findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 9(6), 449–459.Google Scholar

Wijkstra, J, Lijmer, J, Balk, JF, Geddes, JR., Nolen, WA (2006). Pharmacological treatment for unipolar psychotic depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 188(5), 410–415.Google Scholar

Wohlreich, MM, Mallinckrodt, CH, Watkin, JG, et al. (2005). Immediate switching of antidepressant therapy: results from a clinical trial of duloxetine. Ann Clin Psychiatry, 17, 259–268.Google Scholar

Yildiz, A, Pauler, DK, Sachs, GS (2004). Rates of study completion with single versus split daily dosing of antidepressants: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 78, 157–162.Google Scholar

Yyldyz, A, Sachs, GS (2001). Administration of antidepressants. Single versus split dosing: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 66, 199–206.Google Scholar

Zarrouf, FA, Artz, S, Griffith, J, Sirbu, C, Kommor, M (2009). Testosterone and depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Pract, 15(4), 289–305. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000358315.88931.fc.Google Scholar

Zheng, W, Li, X-H, Zhu, X-M, et al. (2019). Adjunctive ketamine and electroconvulsive therapy for major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Affective Disord, 250, 123–131.Google Scholar

Zhou, X, Ravindran, AV, Qin, B, et al. (2015). Comparative efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of augmentation agents in treatment-resistant depression: systematic review and network meta-analysis. Clin Psychiatry, 76(4), e487–e498. doi:10.4088/JCP.14r09204.Google Scholar

Zivin, K, Pfeiffer, PN, Bohnert, AS, et al. (2013). Evaluation of the FDA warning against prescribing citalopram at doses exceeding 40 mg. Am J Psychiatry, 170(6), 642–650. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12030408.Google Scholar

Argolo, FC, Cavalcanti-Ribeiro, P, Netto, LR, Quarantini, LC (2015). Prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol: a meta-analytic review. J Psychosom Res, 79, 89–93.Google Scholar

Baldwin, DS, Aitchison, KBA, Curran, HV, et al. (2013). Benzodiazepines: risks and benefits. A reconsideration. J Psychopharmacol, 27, 967–971.Google Scholar

Baldwin, DS, Anderson, IM, Nutt, DJ, et al. (2014). Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 28, 403–439.Google Scholar

Baldwin, DS, den Boer, JA, Lyndon, G, et al. (2015). Efficacy and safety of pregabalin in generalised anxiety disorder: a critical review of the literature. J Psychopharmacol, 29, 1047–1060.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bandelow, B, Reitt, M, Röver, C, et al. (2015). Efficacy of treatments for anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 30, 183–192.Google Scholar

Bandelow, B, Baldwin, D, Abelli, M, et al. (2017). Biological markers for anxiety disorders, OCD and PTSD: a consensus statement. Part II: Neurochemistry, neurophysiology and neurocognition. World J Biol Psychiatry, 18, 162–214.Google Scholar

Barker, MJ, Greenwood, KM, Jackson, M, Crowe, SF (2004). Persistence of cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use: a meta-analysis. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 19, 437–454.Google Scholar

Batelaan, NM, Bosman, RC, Muntingh, A, et al. (2017). Risk of relapse after antidepressant discontinuation in anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of relapse prevention trials. BMJ, 358, j3927.Google Scholar

Billioti de Gage, S, Pariente, A, Bégaud, B (2015). Is there really a link between benzodiazepine use and the risk of dementia? Expert Opin Drug Saf, 14, 733–747.Google Scholar

Bonnet, U, Scherbaum, N (2017). How addictive are gabapentin and pregabalin? A systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 27, 1185–1215.Google Scholar

Chagraoui, A, Skiba, M, Thuillez, C, Thibaut, F (2016). To what extent is it possible to dissociate the anxiolytic and sedative/hypnotic properties of GABAA receptors modulators? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 71, 189–202.Google Scholar

Chessick, CA, Allen, MH, Thase, ME, et al. (2006). Azapirones for generalized anxiety disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD006115.Google Scholar

Corchs, F, Nutt, DJ, Hince, DA, et al. (2015). Evidence for serotonin function as a neurochemical difference between fear and anxiety disorders in humans? J Psychopharmacol, 29, 1061–1069.Google Scholar

Cowen, PJ, Anderson, IM, Grahame-Smith, DG (1990). Neuroendocrine effects of azapirones. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 10, 21S–25S.Google Scholar

Culpepper, L, Wingertzahn, MA (2015). Over-the-counter agents for the treatment of occasional disturbed sleep or transient insomnia: a systematic review of efficacy and safety. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord, 17, 10.4088/PCC.15r01798.Google Scholar

Deakin, JFW (2013). The origins of ‘5-HT and mechanisms of defence’ by Deakin and Graeff: a personal perspective. J Psychopharmacol, 27, 1084–1089.Google Scholar

Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, Kasper, S (2015). Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an update meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 18, pii: pyv047. doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyv047.Google Scholar

Drover, DR (2004). Comparative pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of short-acting hypnosedatives. Clin Pharmacokinet, 43, 227–238.Google Scholar

Ducasse, D, Boyer, L, Michel, P, et al. (2014). D2 and D3 dopamine receptor affinity predicts effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in obsessive-compulsive disorders: a metaregression analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 231, 3765–3770.Google Scholar

Dündar, Y, Dodd, S, Strobl, J, et al. (2004). Comparative efficacy of newer hypnotic drugs for the short-term management of insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Psychopharmacol, 19, 305–322.Google Scholar

Fleminger, S, Greenwood, RRJ, Oliver, DL (2006). Pharmacological management for agitation and aggression in people with acquired brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (4), CD003299.Google Scholar

Freynhagen, R, Backonja, M, Schug, S, et al. (2016). Pregabalin for the treatment of drug and alcohol withdrawal symptoms: a comprehensive review. CNS Drugs, 30, 1191–1200.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Emsley, R, Rembry, S, et al. (2009). Agomelatine prevents relapse in patients with major depressive disorder without evidence of a discontinuation syndrome: a 24-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry, 70, 1128–1137.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Anderson, IM (2007). Recognising and managing antidepressant discontinuation symptoms. Adv Psychiatr Treat, 13, 447–457.Google Scholar

Hajak, G, Müller, WE, Wittchen, HU, Pittrow, D, Kirch, W (2003). Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction, 98, 1371–1378.Google Scholar

Kalueff, AV, Nutt, DJ (2007). Role of GABA in anxiety and depression. Depress Anxiety, 24, 495–517.Google Scholar

Kishi, T, Meltzer, HY, Matsuda, Y, Iwata, N (2013). Azapirone 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist treatment for major depressive disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med, 44, 2255–2269.Google Scholar

Kishi, T, Matsunaga, S, Iwata, N (2015). Suvorexant for primary insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. PLoS One, 10, e0136910.Google Scholar

Kuriyama, A, Honda, M, Hayashino, Y (2014). Ramelteon for the treatment of insomnia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med, 15, 385–392.Google Scholar

Loane, C, Politis, M (2012). Buspirone: what is it all about? Brain Res, 1461, 111–118.Google Scholar

Maneeton, N, Maneeton, B, Woottiluk, P, et al. (2016). Quetiapine monotherapy in acute treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Drug Des Devel Ther, 10, 259–276.Google Scholar

Micó, J-A, Prieto, R (2012). Elucidating the mechanism of action of pregabalin. CNS Drugs, 26, 637–648.Google Scholar

Miller, CH, Fleischhacker, WW (2000). Managing antipsychotic-induced acute and chronic akathisia. Drug Saf, 22, 73–81.Google Scholar

Muscatello, MR, Spina, E, Bandelow, B, Baldwin, DS (2012). Clinically relevant drug interactions in anxiety disorders. Hum Psychopharmacol, 27, 239–253.Google Scholar

Peterlik, D, Flor, PJ, Uschold-Schmidt, N (2016). The emerging role of metabotropic glutamate receptors in the pathophysiology of chronic stress-related disorders. Curr Neuropharmacol, 14, 514–539.Google Scholar

Pignon, B, Tezenas du Montcel, C, Carton, L, Pelissolo, A (2017). The place of antipsychotics in the therapy of anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 19, 103.Google Scholar

Pitsikas, N (2014). The metabotropic glutamate receptors: potential drug targets for the treatment of anxiety disorders? Eur J Pharmacol, 723, 181–184.Google Scholar

Schjerning, O, Rosenzweig, M, Pottegård, A, Damkier, P, Nielsen, J (2016). Abuse potential of pregabalin. CNS Drugs, 30, 9–25.Google Scholar

Sieghart, W, Sperk, G (2002). Subunit composition, distribution and function of GABA-A receptor subtypes. Curr Top Med Chem, 2, 795–816.Google Scholar

Sigel, E, Steinmann, ME (2012). Structure, function and modulation of GABAA receptor. J Biol Chem, 287, 40224–40231.Google Scholar

Soyka, M (2017). Treatment of benzodiazepine dependence. N Engl J Med, 376, 1147–1157.Google Scholar

Steenen, SA, van Wijk, AJ, van der Heijden, GJ, et al. (2016). Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 128–139.Google Scholar

Stein, DJ, Ahokas, AA, de Bodinat, C (2008). Efficacy of agomelatine in generalized anxiety disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 28, 561–566.Google Scholar

Stein, DJ, Ahokas, A, Albarran, C, et al. (2012). Agomelatine prevents relapse in generalized anxiety disorder: a 6-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled discontinuation study. J Clin Psychiatry, 73, 1002–1008.Google Scholar

Sutton, JA, Clauss, RP (2017). A review of the evidence of zolpidem efficacy in neurological disability after brain damage due to stroke, trauma and hypoxia: a justification of further clinical trials. Brain Inj, 31, 1019–1027.Google Scholar

Turner, P, Granville-Grossman, KL, Smart, JV (1965). Effect of adrenergic receptor blockade on the tachycardia of thyrotoxicosis and anxiety state. Lancet, 286, 1316–1318.Google Scholar

Walsh, JK, Krystal, AD, Amato, DA, et al. (2007). Nightly treatment of primary insomnia with eszopiclone for six months: effect on sleep, quality of life, and work limitations. Sleep, 30, 959–968.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Whale, R, Terao, T, Cowen, P, Freemantle, C, Geddes, G (2010). Pindolol augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors for the treatment of depressive disorder: a systematic review. J Psychopharmacol, 24, 513–520.Google Scholar

Wilson, SJ, Nutt, DJ, Alford, C, et al. (2010). British Association for Psychopharmacology consensus statement on evidence-based treatment of insomnia, parasomnias and circadian rhythm disorders. J Psychopharmacol, 24, 1577–1601.Google Scholar

Yeung, W-F, Chung, K-F, Yung, K-P, Ng, TH-Y (2015). Doxepin for insomnia: a systematic review of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Sleep Med Rev, 19, 75–83.Google Scholar

Adams, CE, Fenton, MK, Quraishi, S, David, AS (2001). Systematic meta-review of depot antipsychotic drugs for people with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry, 179, 290–299.Google Scholar

Arranz, MJ, Rivera, M, Munro, JC (2011). Pharmacogenetics of response to antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia. CNS Drugs, 25(11), 933–939.Google Scholar

Ashok, AH, Marques, TR, Jauhar, S, et al. (2017). The dopamine hypothesis of bipolar affective disorder: the state of the art and implications for treatment. Mol Psychiatry, 22(5), 666–679.Google Scholar

Bagnall, AM, Jones, L, Ginnelly, L, et al. (2003). A systematic review of atypical antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia. Health Technol Assess, 7(13), 1–193.Google Scholar

Beck, K, McCutcheon, R, Bloomfield, MAP, et al. (2014). The practical management of refractory schizophrenia – the Maudsley Treatment Review and Assessment Team service approach. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 130(6), 427–438.Google Scholar

Beresford, R, Ward, A (1987). Haloperidol decanoate. A preliminary review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in psychosis. Drugs, 33(1), 31–49.Google Scholar

Bleakley, S (2012). Identifying and reducing the risk of antipsychotic drug interactions. Prog Neurol Psychiatry, 16(2), 20–24.Google Scholar

Bolden, C, Cusack, B, Richelson, E (1992). Antagonism by antimuscarinic and neuroleptic compounds at the five cloned human muscarinic cholinergic receptors expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 260(2), 576–580.Google Scholar

Brugger, SP, Howes, OD (2017). Heterogeneity and homogeneity of regional brain structure in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(11), 1104–1111.Google Scholar

Buckley, PF, Schooler, NR, Goff, DC, et al. (2016). Comparison of injectable and oral antipsychotics in relapse rates in a pragmatic 30-month schizophrenia relapse prevention study. Psychiatr Serv, 67(12), 1370–1372.Google Scholar

Bymaster, FP, Calligaro, DO, Falcone, JF, et al. (1996). Radioreceptor binding profile of the atypical antipsychotic olanzapine. Neuropsychopharmacology, 14, 87–96.Google Scholar

Carbon, M, Kane, MJ, Leucht, S, Correll, CU (2018). Tardive dyskinesia risk with first- and second-generation antipsychotics in comparative randomized controlled trials: a meta-analysis. World Psychiatry, 17(3), 330–340. doi:10.1002/wps.20579.Google Scholar

Carlsson, A, Lindqvist, M (1963). Effect of chlorpromazine or haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh), 20(2), 140–144.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Barbui, C, Salanti, G, et al. (2011). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs in acute mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet, 378(9799), 1306–1315.Google Scholar

Correll, CU (2010). From receptor pharmacology to improved outcomes: individualising the selection, dosing, and switching of antipsychotics. Eur Psychiatry, 25(Suppl 2), S12–S21. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(10)71701-6.Google Scholar

Correll, CU, Citrome, L, Haddad, PM, et al. (2016). The use of long-acting injectable antipsychotics in schizophrenia: evaluating the evidence. J Clin Psychiatry, 77(Suppl 3), 1–24.Google Scholar

Creese, I, Burt, D, Snyder, S (1976). Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science, 192(4238), 481–483.Google Scholar

Davidson, M, Saoud, J, Staner, C, et al. (2017). Efficacy and safety of MIN-101: a 12-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a new drug in development for the treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 174(12), 1195–1202.Google Scholar

Davies, DL, Shepherd, M (1955). Reserpine in the treatment of anxious and depressed patients. Lancet, 269(6881), 117–120.Google Scholar

Dold, M, Aigner, M, Lanzenberger, R, Kasper, S (2015). Antipsychotic augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: an update meta-analysis of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 18(9), pyv047.Google Scholar

Douglas, IJ, Smeeth, L (2008). Exposure to antipsychotics and risk of stroke: self controlled case series study. BMJ, 337, a1227.Google Scholar

Dzahini, O, Singh, N, Taylor, D, Haddad, PM (2018). Antipsychotic drug use and pneumonia: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol, 32(11), 1167–1181.Google Scholar

Emsley, R, Medori, R, Koen, L, et al. (2008). Long-acting injectable risperidone in the treatment of subjects with recent-onset psychosis: a preliminary study. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 28(2), 210–213.Google Scholar

Fallon, P, Dursun, S, Deakin, B (2012). Drug-induced supersensitivity psychosis revisited: characteristics of relapse in treatment-compliant patients. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol, 2(1), 13–22.Google Scholar

Frampton, JE (2010). Olanzapine long-acting injection: a review of its use in the treatment of schizophrenia. Drugs, 70(17), 2289–2313.Google Scholar

González-Blanco, L, Greenhalgh, AMD, Garcia-Rizo, C, et al. (2016). Prolactin concentrations in antipsychotic-naïve patients with schizophrenia and related disorders: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res, 174(1), 156–160.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Haddad, PM, Ferrier, IN, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30(6), 495–553.Google Scholar

Grace, AA, Gomes, FV (2019). The circuitry of dopamine system regulation and its disruption in schizophrenia: insights into treatment and prevention. Schizophr Bull, 45(1), 148–157. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx199.Google Scholar

Graff-Guerrero, A, Mizrahi, R, Agid, O, et al. (2009). The dopamine D2 receptors in high-affinity state and D3 receptors in schizophrenia: a clinical [11C]-(+)-PHNO PET study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(4), 1078–1086.Google Scholar

Graff-Guerrero, A, Mamo, D, Shammi, C, et al. (2013). The effect of antipsychotics on the high-affinity state of D2 and D3 receptors: a positron emission tomography study with [11c]-(+)-PHNO. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 66(6), 606–615.Google Scholar

Grossman, I, Sullivan, PF, Walley, N, et al. (2008). Genetic determinants of variable metabolism have little impact on the clinical use of leading antipsychotics in the CATIE study. Genet Med, 10(10), 720–729.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Anderson, IM (2002). Antipsychotic-related QTc prolongation, torsade de pointes and sudden death. Drugs, 62(11), 1649–1671.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Correll, CU (2018). The acute efficacy of antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a review of recent meta-analyses. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol, 8(11), 303–318.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Wieck, A (2004). Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia: mechanisms, clinical features and management. Drugs, 64, 2291–2314.Google Scholar

Hedges, D, Jeppson, K, Whitehead, P (2003). Antipsychotic medication and seizures: a review. Drugs Today (Barc), 39(7), 551–557.Google Scholar

Heres, S, Hamann, J, Kissling, W, Leucht, S (2006). Attitudes of psychiatrists toward antipsychotic depot medication. J Clin Psychiatry, 67(12), 1948–1953.Google Scholar

Hirsch, SR, Gaind, R, Rohde, PD, Stevens, BC, Wing, JK (1973). Outpatient maintenance of chronic schizophrenic patients with long-acting fluphenazine: double-blind placebo. Br Med J, 1(5854), 633–637.Google Scholar

Ho, BC, Andreasen, NC, Ziebell, S, Pierson, R, Magnotta, V (2011). Long-term antipsychotic treatment and brain volumes: a longitudinal study of first-episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 68(2), 128–137.Google Scholar

Horvitz-Lennon, M, Mattke, S, Predmore, Z, Howes, OD (2017). The role of antipsychotic plasma levels in the treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 174(5), 421–426.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, Kapur, S (2014). A neurobiological hypothesis for the classification of schizophrenia: type a (hyperdopaminergic) and type b (normodopaminergic). Br J Psychiatry, 205, 1–3.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, McCutcheon, R. (2017). Inflammation and the neural diathesis-stress hypothesis of schizophrenia: a reconceptualization. Transl Psychiatry, 7(2), e1024. doi:10.1038/tp.2016.278.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, Kambeitz, J, Kim, E, et al. (2012). The nature of dopamine dysfunction in schizophrenia and what this means for treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 69(8), 776–786.Google Scholar

Howes, O, McCutcheon, R, Stone, J (2015). Glutamate and dopamine in schizophrenia: an update for the 21(st) century. J Psychopharmacol, 29(2), 97–115.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, McCutcheon, R, Agid, O, et al. (2017a). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Treatment Response and Resistance in Psychosis (TRRIP) working group consensus guidelines on diagnosis and terminology. Am J Psychiatry, 174(3), 216–229.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, McCutcheon, R, Owen, MJ, Murray, RM (2017b). The role of genes, stress, and dopamine in the development of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry, 81(1), 9–20.Google Scholar

Jauhar, S, Veronese, M, Rogdaki, M, et al. (2017). Regulation of dopaminergic function: an [18 F]-DOPA PET apomorphine challenge study in humans. Transl Psychiatry, 7(2), e1027. doi:10.1038/tp.2016.270.Google Scholar

Johnsen, E, Kroken, RA, Abaza, M, Olberg, H, Jørgensen, HA (2008). Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia: a cross-sectional survey. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 28(6), 686–690. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e31818ba5d8.Google Scholar

Johnson, DAW (2009). Historical perspective on antipsychotic long-acting injections. Br J Psychiatry, 195(52), S7–S12.Google Scholar

Kane, JM, Detke, HC, Naber, D, et al. (2010). Olanzapine long-acting injection: a 24-week, randomized, double-blind trial of maintenance treatment in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 167(2), 181–189.Google Scholar

Kapur, S (1998). A new framework for investigating antipsychotic action in humans: lessons from PET imaging. Mol Psychiatry, 3(2), 135–140.Google Scholar

Kapur, S, Seeman, P (2000). Antipsychotic agents differ in how fast they come off the dopamine D2 receptors. Implications for atypical antipsychotic action. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 25(2), 161–166.Google Scholar

Kapur, S, Seeman, P (2001). Does fast dissociation from the dopamine D2 receptor explain the action of atypical antipsychotics?: a new hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry, 158(3), 360–369.Google Scholar

Kapur, S, Zipursky, RB, Remington, G, et al. (1998). 5-HT2 and D2 receptor occupancy of olanzapine in schizophrenia: a PET investigation. Am J Psychiatry, 155(7), 921–928.Google Scholar

Kapur, S, Zipursky, RB, Remington, G (1999). Clinical and theoretical implications of 5-HT2 and D2 receptor occupancy of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 156(2), 286–293.Google Scholar

Kapur, S, Zipursky, R, Jones, C, Remington, G, Houle, S (2000). Relationship between dopamine D2 occupancy, clinical response, and side effects: a double-blind PET study of first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 157(4), 514–520.Google Scholar

Kebabian, JW, Calne, DB (1979). Multiple receptors for dopamine. Nature, 277(5692), 93–96.Google Scholar

Kim, B, Lee, SH, Choi, TK, et al. (2008). Effectiveness of risperidone long-acting injection in first-episode schizophrenia: in naturalistic setting. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 32(5), 1231–1235. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2008.03.012.Google Scholar

King, C, Voruganti, LNP (2002). What’s in a name? The evolution of the nomenclature of antipsychotic drugs. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 27(3), 168–175.Google Scholar

Kirson, NY, Weiden, PJ, Yermakov, S, et al. (2013). Efficacy and effectiveness of depot versus oral antipsychotics in schizophrenia: synthesizing results across different research designs. J Clin Psychiatry, 74(6), 568–575.Google Scholar

Kisely, S, Sawyer, E, Robinson, G, Siskind, D (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of depot antipsychotic frequency on compliance and outcome. Schizophr Res, 166(1–3), 178–186.Google Scholar

Kishimoto, T, Robenzadeh, A, Leucht, C, et al. (2014). Long-acting injectable vs oral antipsychotics for relapse prevention in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Schizophr Bull, 40(1), 192–213.Google Scholar

Kwentus, J, Riesenberg, RA, Marandi, M, et al. (2012). Rapid acute treatment of agitation in patients with bipolar I disorder: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial with inhaled loxapine. Bipolar Disord, 14(1), 31–40. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00975.x.Google Scholar

Laborit, H, Huguenard, P, Alluaume, R (1952). Un noveau stabilisateur végétatif (le 4560 RP). La Presse Médicale, 60, 206–208.Google Scholar

Lambert, M, Conus, P, Eide, P, et al. (2004). Impact of present and past antipsychotic side effects on attitude toward typical antipsychotic treatment and adherence. Eur Psychiatry, 19(7), 415–422.Google Scholar

Lesem, MD, Tran-Johnson, TK, Riesenberg, RA, et al. (2011). Rapid acute treatment of agitation in individuals with schizophrenia: multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled study of inhaled loxapine. Br J Psychiatry, 198(1), 51–58. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.081513.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Pitschel-Walz, G, Abraham, D, Kissling, W (1999). Efficacy and extrapyramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophr Res, 35(1), 51–68.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Busch, R, Kissling, W, Kane, JM (2007). Early prediction of antipsychotic nonresponse among patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry, 68(3), 352–360.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Corves, C, Arbter, D, et al. (2009). Second-generation versus first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Lancet, 373(9657), 31–41.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Hierl, S, Kissling, W, Dold, M, Davis, JM (2012a). Putting the efficacy of psychiatric and general medicine medication into perspective: review of meta-analyses. Br J Psychiatry, 200(2), 97–106.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Tardy, M, Komossa, K, et al. (2012b). Maintenance treatment with antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD008016.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Cipriani, A, Spineli, L, et al. (2013). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet, 382(9896), 951–962.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Leucht, C, Huhn, M, et al. (2017). Sixty years of placebo-controlled antipsychotic drug trials in acute schizophrenia: systematic review, Bayesian meta-analysis, and meta-regression of efficacy predictors. Am J Psychiatry, 174(10), 927–942.Google Scholar

Lieberman, JA, 3rd (2004). Managing anticholinergic side effects. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry, 6(Suppl 2), 20–23.Google Scholar

Lindström, L, Lindström, E, Nilsson, M, Höistad, M (2017). Maintenance therapy with second generation antipsychotics for bipolar disorder – a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 213, 138–150. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.02.012.Google Scholar

Mallikaarjun, S, Kane, JM, Bricmont, P, et al. (2013). Pharmacokinetics, tolerability and safety of aripiprazole once-monthly in adult schizophrenia: an open-label, parallel-arm, multiple-dose study. Schizophr Res, 150(1), 281–288.Google Scholar

Maneeton, N, Maneeton, B, Woottiluk, P, et al. (2016). Quetiapine monotherapy in acute treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Drug Des Devel Ther, 10, 259–276. doi:10.2147/DDDT.S89485.Google Scholar

Marder, SR, Hubbard, JW, Van Putten, T, Midha, KK (1989). Pharmacokinetics of long-acting injectable neuroleptic drugs: clinical implications. Psychopharmacology, 98(4), 433–439.Google Scholar

Mauri, MC, Volonteri, LS, Colasanti, A, et al. (2007). Clinical pharmacokinetics of atypical antipsychotics: a critical review of the relationship between plasma concentrations and clinical response. Clin Pharmacokinet, 46(5), 359–388.Google Scholar

McCutcheon, R, Beck, K, Bloomfield, MA, et al. (2015). Treatment resistant or resistant to treatment? Antipsychotic plasma levels in patients with poorly controlled psychotic symptoms. J Psychopharmacol, 29(8), 892–897.Google Scholar

McCutcheon, R, Beck, K, D’Ambrosio, E, et al. (2017). Antipsychotic plasma levels in the assessment of poor treatment response in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 137(1), 39–46.Google Scholar

McCutcheon, R, Beck, K, Jauhar, S, Howes, OD (2018). Defining the locus of dopaminergic dysfunction in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis and test of the mesolimbic hypothesis. Schizophr Bull, 44(6), 1301–1311.Google Scholar

McCutcheon, RA, Abi-Dargham, A, Howes, OD (2019). Schizophrenia, dopamine and the striatum: from biology to symptoms. Trends Neurosci, 42(3), 205–220.Google Scholar

Meltzer, HY, Matsubara, S, Lee, J-C (1989). Classification of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs on the basis of dopamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 251(1), 238–246.Google Scholar

Minzenberg, MJ, Poole, JH, Benton, C, Vinogradov, S (2004). Association of anticholinergic load with impairment of complex attention and memory in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 161(1), 116–124.Google Scholar

Murphy, BP, Chung, Y-C, Park, T-W, McGorry, PD (2006). Pharmacological treatment of primary negative symptoms in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Schizophr Res, 88(1–3), 5–25.Google Scholar

Murray, RM, Quattrone, D, Natesan, S, et al. (2016). Should psychiatrists be more cautious about the long-term prophylactic use of antipsychotics? Br J Psychiatry, 209(5), 361–365.Google Scholar

Nyberg, S, Farde, L, Eriksson, L, Halldin, C, Eriksson, B (1993). 5-HT2 and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy in the living human brain. Psychopharmacology, 110(3), 265–272.Google Scholar

Oehl, M, Hummer, M, Fleischhacker, WW (2000). Compliance with antipsychotic treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 102, 83–86.Google Scholar

Olianas, MC, Maullu, C, Onali, P (1997). Effects of clozapine on rat striatal muscarinic receptors coupled to inhibition of adenylyl cyclase activity and on the human cloned m4 receptor. Br J Pharmacol, 122(3), 401–408.Google Scholar

Ortiz-Orendain, J, Castiello-de Obeso, S, Colunga-Lozano, LE, et al. (2017). Antipsychotic combinations for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (6), CD009005. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009005.pub2.Google Scholar

Pantelis, C, Velakoulis, D, McGorry, PD, et al. (2003). Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet, 361(9354), 281–288.Google Scholar

Park, EJ, Amatya, S, Kim, MS, et al. (2013). Long-acting injectable formulations of antipsychotic drugs for the treatment of schizophrenia. Arch Pharm Res, 36(6), 651–659.Google Scholar

Parsons, B, Allison, DB, Loebel, A, et al. (2009). Weight effects associated with antipsychotics: a comprehensive database analysis. Schizophr Res, 110(1–3), 103–110.Google Scholar

Pelonero, AL, Levenson, JL, Pandurangi, AK (1998). Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review. Psychiatr Serv, 49(9), 1163–1172.Google Scholar

Perreault, ML, Hasbi, A, Alijaniaram, M, et al. (2010). The dopamine D1-D2 receptor heteromer localizes in dynorphin/enkephalin neurons: increased high affinity state following amphetamine and in schizophrenia. J Biol Chem, 285(47), 36625–36634.Google Scholar

Ravyn, D, Ravyn, V, Lowney, R, Nasrallah, HA (2013). CYP450 pharmacogenetic treatment strategies for antipsychotics: a review of the evidence. Schizophr Res, 149(1–3), 1–14.Google Scholar

Ronaldson, KJ (2017). Cardiovascular disease in clozapine-treated patients: evidence, mechanisms and management. CNS Drugs, 31(9), 777–795.Google Scholar

Rummel-Kluge, C, Komossa, K, Schwarz, S, et al. (2010). Head-to-head comparisons of metabolic side effects of second generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res, 123(2–3), 225–233.Google Scholar

Sachs, GS, Nierenberg, AA, Calabrese, JR, et al. (2007). Effectiveness of adjunctive antidepressant treatment for bipolar depression. N Engl J Med, 356, 1711–1722. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064135.Google Scholar

Samara, MT, Dold, M, Gianatsi, M, et al. (2016). Efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of antipsychotics in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a network meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(3), 199–210.Google Scholar

Seeman, P (2001). Antipsychotic drugs, dopamine receptors, and schizophrenia. Clin Neurosci Res, 1(1–2), 53–60.Google Scholar

Seeman, P (2011). All roads to schizophrenia lead to dopamine supersensitivity and elevated dopamine D2High receptors. CNS Neurosci Ther, 17(2), 118–132.Google Scholar

Seeman, P (2012). Dopamine agonist radioligand binds to both D2High and D2Low receptors, explaining why alterations in D2High are not detected in human brain scans. Synapse, 66(1), 88–93.Google Scholar

Seeman, P, Chau-Wong, M, Tedesco, J, Wong, K (1975). Brain receptors for antipsychotic drugs and dopamine: direct binding assays. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 72(11), 4376–4380.Google Scholar

Sepede, G, De Berardis, D, Gambi, F, et al. (2006). Olanzapine augmentation in treatment-resistant panic disorder: a 12-week, fixed-dose, open-label trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 26(1), 45–49.Google Scholar

Shen, WW (1999). A history of antipsychotic drug development. Compr Psychiatry, 40, 407–414.Google Scholar

Siskind, D, McCartney, L, Goldschlager, R, Kisely, S (2016). Clozapine v. first- and second-generation antipsychotics in treatment-refractory schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 209(5), 385–392.Google Scholar

Slifstein, M, van de Giessen, E, Van Snellenberg, J, et al. (2015). Deficits in prefrontal cortical and extrastriatal dopamine release in schizophrenia: a positron emission tomographic functional magnetic resonance imaging study. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(4), 316–324.Google Scholar

Soderberg, MM, Dahl, ML (2013). Pharmacogenetics of olanzapine metabolism. Pharmacogenomics, 14(11), 1319–1336.Google Scholar

Soldin, OP, Mattison, DR (2009). Sex differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacokinet, 48(3), 143–157.Google Scholar

Spielmans, GI, Berman, MI, Linardatos, E, et al. (2013). Adjunctive atypical antipsychotic treatment for major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of depression, quality of life, and safety outcomes. PLoS Med, 10(3), e1001403.Google Scholar

Spina, E, de Leon, J (2007). Metabolic drug interactions with newer antipsychotics: a comparative review. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol, 100(1), 4–22.Google Scholar

Stein, G, Wilkinson, G (eds.) (2007). Seminars in General Adult Psychiatry, 2nd ed. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Taylor, D (2009). Psychopharmacology and adverse effects of antipsychotic long-acting injections: a review. Br J Psychiatry, 195(52), S13–S19.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Haukka, J, Taylor, M, et al. (2011). A nationwide cohort study of oral and depot antipsychotics after first hospitalization for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 168(6), 603–609.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Mittendorfer-Rutz, E, Majak, M, et al. (2017). Real-world effectiveness of antipsychotic treatments in a nationwide cohort of 29823 patients with schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(7), 686–693.Google Scholar

Veijola, J, Guo, JY, Moilanen, JS, et al. (2014). Longitudinal changes in total brain volume in schizophrenia: relation to symptom severity, cognition and antipsychotic medication. PLoS One, 9(7), e101689.Google Scholar

Weiden, PJ, Schooler, NR, Weedon, JC, et al. (2009). A randomized controlled trial of long-acting injectable risperidone vs continuation on oral atypical antipsychotics for first-episode schizophrenia patients: initial adherence outcome. J Clin Psychiatry, 70(10), 1397–1406. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05284yel.Google Scholar

Weinberger, DR (1987). Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 44(7), 660–669.Google Scholar

Wijkstra, J, Lijmer, J, Burger, H, et al. (2015). Pharmacological treatment for psychotic depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (7), CD004044.Google Scholar

Wu, CS, Wang, SC, Yeh, IJ, Liu, SK (2016). Comparative risk of seizure with use of first- and second-generation antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia and mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry, 77(5), e573–e579.Google Scholar

Young, SL, Taylor, M, Lawrie, SM (2015). ‘First do no harm.’ A systematic review of the prevalence and management of antipsychotic adverse effects. J Psychopharmacol, 29(4), 353–362.Google Scholar

Zeng, XP, Le, F, Richelson, E (1997). Muscarinic m4 receptor activation by some atypical antipsychotic drugs. Eur J Pharmacol, 321(3), 349–354.Google Scholar

Zhang, ZJ, Yao, ZJ, Liu, W, Fang, Q, Reynolds, GP (2004). Effects of antipsychotics on fat deposition and changes in leptin and insulin levels. Magnetic resonance imaging study of previously untreated people with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry, 184, 58–62.Google Scholar

Zhu, Y, Li, C, Huhn, M, et al. (2017). How well do patients with a first episode of schizophrenia respond to antipsychotics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 27(9), 835–844. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.06.011.Google Scholar

Zohar, J, Stahl, S, Moller, H-J, et al. (2015). A review of the current nomenclature for psychotropic agents and an introduction to the Neuroscience-based Nomenclature. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 25(12), 2318–2325.Google Scholar

Agid, O, Arenovich, T, Sajeev, G, et al. (2011). An algorithm-based approach to first-episode schizophrenia: response rates over 3 prospective antipsychotic trials with a retrospective data analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 72, 1439–1444.Google Scholar

Bagnall, AM, Jones, L, Ginnelly, L, et al. (2003). A systematic review of atypical antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia. Health Technol Assess, 7(13), 1–193.Google Scholar

Barber, S, Olotu, U, Corsi, M, Cipriani, A (2017). Clozapine combined with different antipsychotic drugs for treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD006324.Google Scholar

Barnes, TR; Schizophrenia Consensus Group of the British Association for Psychopharmacology (2011). Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 25, 567–620.Google Scholar

Barnes, TRE, Drake, RJ, Dunn, G, et al. (2013). The effect of prior treatment with long-acting injectable antipsychotic drugs on randomised, clinical trial treatment outcomes. Br J Psychiatry, 203(3), 215–220.Google Scholar

Barnes, TRE, Dye, S, Ferrier, N, et al. (2014). Consensus Statement on High-Dose Antipsychotic Medication. College Report CR190. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Beri, A, Boydell, J (2014). Clozapine in borderline personality disorder: a review of the evidence. Ann Clin Psychiatry, 26(2), 139–144.Google Scholar

Bowskill, S, Couchman, L, MacCabe, JH, Flanagan, RJ (2012). Plasma clozapine and norclozapine in relation to prescribed dose and other factors in patients aged 65 years and over: data from a therapeutic drug monitoring service, 1996–2010. Hum Psychopharmacol, 27(3), 277–283.Google Scholar

Brosda, J, Jantschak, F, Pertz, HH (2014). Alpha2-adrenoceptors are targets for antipsychotic drugs. Psychopharmacology, 231(5), 801–812.Google Scholar

Chang, A, Fox, SH (2016). Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. Drugs, 76(11), 1093–1118.Google Scholar

Chang, JS, Ha, KS, Young Lee, K, Sik Kim, Y, Min Ahn, Y (2006). The effects of long-term clozapine add-on therapy on the rehospitalization rate and the mood polarity patterns in bipolar disorders. J Clin Psychiatry, 67(3), 461–467.Google Scholar

Cohen, D (2017). Clozapine and gastrointestinal hypomotility. CNS Drugs, 31(12), 1083–1091.Google Scholar

Cohen, D, Bogers, JP, van Dijk, D, Bakker, B, Schulte, PF (2012). Beyond white blood cell monitoring: screening in the initial phase of clozapine therapy. J Clin Psychiatry, 73(10), 1307–1312.Google Scholar

Correll, CU, Rubio, JM, Inczedy-Farkas, G, et al. (2017). Efficacy of 42 pharmacologic cotreatment strategies added to antipsychotic monotherapy in schizophrenia: systematic overview and quality appraisal of the meta-analytic evidence. JAMA Psychiatry, 74, 675–684.Google Scholar

Couchman, L, Morgan, EL, Spencer, EP, Flanagan, RJ (2010). Plasma clozapine, norclozapine, and the clozapine:norclozapine ratio in relation to prescribed dose and other factors: data from a therapeutic drug monitoring service, 1993–2007. Ther Drug Monit, 32, 438–447.Google Scholar

Crilly, J (2007). The history of clozapine and its emergence in the US market: a review and analysis. Hist Psychiatry, 18(1), 39–60.Google Scholar

Davies, LM, Lewis, S, Jones, PB, et al.; CUtLASS team (2007). Cost-effectiveness of first- v. second-generation antipsychotic drugs: results from a randomised controlled trial in schizophrenia responding poorly to previous therapy. Br J Psychiatry, 191, 14–22.Google Scholar

Davis, JM, Chen, N, Glick, ID (2003). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of second-generation antipsychotics. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 60(6), 553–564.Google Scholar

Demjaha, A, Egerton, A, Murray, RM, et al. (2014). Antipsychotic treatment resistance in schizophrenia associated with elevated glutamate levels but normal dopamine function. Biol Psychiatry, 75(5), e11–e13.Google Scholar

Dzahini, O, Singh, N, Taylor, D, Haddad, PM (2018). Antipsychotic drug use and pneumonia: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol, 32(11), 1167–1181.Google Scholar

electronic Medicines Compendium (2019). Summary of Product Characteristics: Clorazil. Mylan. Last updated 6 June 2019. Available at: www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/10290/smpc (last accessed 4.10.19).Google Scholar

Fabrazzo, M, La Pia, S, Monteleone, P, et al. (2002). Is the time course of clozapine response correlated to the time course of clozapine plasma levels? A one-year prospective study in drug-resistant patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 27(6), 1050–1055.Google Scholar

Foley, DL, Mackinnon, A, Morgan, VA, et al. (2015). Effect of age, family history of diabetes, and antipsychotic drug treatment on risk of diabetes in people with psychosis: a population-based cross-sectional study. Lancet Psychiatry, 2(12), 1092–1098.Google Scholar

Frogley, C, Taylor, D, Dickens, G, Picchioni, M (2011). A systematic review of the evidence of clozapine’s anti-aggressive effects. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 15(9), 1351–1371.Google Scholar

Galling, B, Roldán, A, Hagi, K, et al. (2017). Antipsychotic augmentation vs. monotherapy in schizophrenia: systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis.World Psychiatry, 16(1), 77–89.Google Scholar

Goldstein, ME, Anderson, VM, Pillai, A, Kydd, RR, Russell, BR (2015). Glutamatergic neurometabolites in clozapine-responsive and -resistant schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 18(6), 117.Google Scholar

Gross, G, Wicke, K, Drescher, KU (2013). Dopamine D3 receptor antagonism – still a therapeutic option for the treatment of schizophrenia. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol, 386(2), 155–166.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Correll, CU (2018). The acute efficacy of antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a review of recent meta-analyses. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol, 8(11), 303–318.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Wieck, A (2004). Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinaemia: mechanisms, clinical features and management. Drugs, 64, 2291–2314.Google Scholar

Hampson, M, Killaspy, H, Mynors-Wallis, L, Meier, R (2011). Outcome measures recommended for use in adult psychiatry. Occasional Paper OP78. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists. Available at: www.rcpsych.ac.uk/files/pdfversion/OP78x.pdf (last accessed 11.8.17).Google Scholar

Healy, D (1997). The Psychopharmcologists: Interviews by David Healy. New York: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar

Holt, RIG, Peveler, RC (2009). Obesity, serious mental illness and antipsychotic drugs. Diabetes Obes Metabol, 11, 665–679.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, Vergunst, F, Gee, S, et al. (2012). Adherence to treatment guidelines in clinical practice: study of antipsychotic treatment prior to clozapine initiation. Br J Psychiatry, 201, 481–485.Google Scholar

Howes, OD, McCutcheon, R, Agid, O, et al. (2017). Treatment resistant schizophrenia: Treatment Response and Resistance in Psychosis (TRRIP) working group consensus guidelines on diagnosis and terminology. Am J Psychiatry, 174(3), 216–229.Google Scholar

Huang, KL, Fang, CJ, Hsu, CC, et al. (2017). Myocardial infarction risk and antipsychotics use revisited: a meta-analysis of 10 observational studies. J Psychopharmacol, 31(12), 1544–1555. doi:10.1177/0269881117714047.Google Scholar

Hung, GC, Liu, HC, Yang, SY, et al. (2016). Antipsychotic reexposure and recurrent pneumonia in schizophrenia: a nested case-control study. J Clin Psychiatry, 77, 60–66.Google Scholar

Hynes, C, Keating, D, McWilliams, S, et al. (2015). Glasgow Antipsychotic Side-effects Scale for Clozapine – development and validation of a clozapine-specific side-effects scale. Schizophr Res, 168(1–2), 505–513.Google Scholar

Ifteni, P, Nielsen, J, Burtea, V, et al. (2014). Effectiveness and safety of rapid clozapine titration in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 130, 25–29.Google Scholar

Ismail, Z, Wessels, AM, Uchida, H, et al. (2012). Age and sex impact clozapine plasma concentrations in inpatients and outpatients with schizophrenia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 20(1), 53–60.Google Scholar

Kane, JM, Honigfield, G, Singer, J, Meltzer, HY (1988). Clozapine for the treatment-resistant schizophrenic: a double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 45, 789–796.Google Scholar

Kluge, M, Schuld, A, Schacht, A, et al. (2009). Effects of clozapine and olanzapine on cytokine systems are closely linked to weight gain and drug-induced fever. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(1), 118–128.Google Scholar

Koponen, HJ, Hakko, HH, Saari, KM, et al. (2010). The prevalence and predictive value of individual criteria for metabolic syndrome in schizophrenia: a Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort Study. World J Biol Psychiatry, 11(2 Pt 2), 262–267.Google Scholar

Krawiecka, M, Goldberg, D, Vaughan, M. (1977). A standardised psychiatric assessment scale for rating chronic psychiatric patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 55, 299–308.Google Scholar

Kuo, CJ, Yang, SY, Liao, YT, et al. (2013). Second-generation antipsychotic medications and risk of pneumonia in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 39, 648–657.Google Scholar

Lahti, RA, Evans, DL, Stratman, NC, Figur, LM (1993). Dopamine D4 versus D2 receptor selectivity of dopamine receptor antagonists: possible therapeutic implications. Eur J Pharmacol, 236(3), 483–486.Google Scholar

Lalanne, L, Lutz, PE, Trojak, B, et al. (2016). Medications between psychiatric and addictive disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 65, 215–223.Google Scholar

Lally, J, Tully, J, Robertson, D, et al. (2016). Augmentation of clozapine with electroconvulsive therapy in treatment resistant schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res, 171(1–3), 215–224.Google Scholar

Lambert, M, Haro, JM, Novick, D, et al. (2005). Olanzapine vs. other antipsychotics in actual out-patient settings: six months tolerability results from the European Schizophrenia Out-patient Health Outcomes study. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 111(3), 232–243.Google Scholar

Lambiase, PD, de Bono, JP, Schilling, RJ, et al. (2019). British Heart Rhythm Society clinical practice guidelines on the management of patients developing QT prolongation on antipsychotic medication. Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev, 8(3), 161–165.Google Scholar

Laroche, DG, Gaillard, A (2016). Induced obsessive compulsive symptoms (OCS) in schizophrenia patients under atypical 2 antipsychotics (AAPs): review and hypotheses. Psychiatry Res, 246, 119–128.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Cipriani, A, Spijeli, L, et al. (2013). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet, 382, 951–962.Google Scholar

Lewis, SW, Barnes, TR, Davies, L, et al. (2006). Randomized controlled trial of effect of prescription of clozapine versus other second-generation antipsychotic drugs in resistant schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 32(4), 715–723.Google Scholar

Li, XB, Tang, YL, Wang, CY, et al. (2015). Clozapine for treatment-resistant bipolar disorder: a systematic review. Bipolar Disord, 17, 235–247.Google Scholar

Lieberman, JA, Phillips, M, Gu, H, et al. (2003). Atypical and conventional antipsychotic drugs in treatment-naive first-episode schizophrenia: a 52-week randomized trial of clozapine vs chlorpromazine. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(5), 995–1003.Google Scholar

Lobos, CA, Komossa, K, Rummel-Kluge, C, et al. (2010). Clozapine versus other atypical antipsychotics for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (11), CD006633.Google Scholar

Manu, P, Sarpal, D, Muir, O, Kane, JM, Correll, CU (2012). When can patients with potentially life-threatening adverse effects be rechallenged with clozapine? A systematic review of the published literature. Schizophr Res, 134(2–3), 180–186.Google Scholar

Manu, P, Lapitskaya, Y, Shaikh, A, Nielsen, J (2018). Clozapine rechallenge after major adverse effects: clinical guidelines based on 259 cases. Am J Ther, 25(2), e218–e223.Google Scholar

Mauri, MC, Volonteri, LS, Colasanti, A, et al. (2007). Clinical pharmacokinetics of atypical antipsychotics: a critical review of the relationship between plasma concentrations and clinical response. Clin Pharmacokinet, 46(5), 359–388.Google Scholar

McEvoy, JP, Lieberman, JA, Stroup, TS, et al.; CATIE Investigators (2006). Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia who did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 163(4), 600–610.Google Scholar

Melkersson, K, Lewitt, M, Hall, K (2015). Higher serum concentrations of tyrosine and glutamate in schizophrenia patients treated with clozapine, compared to in those treated with conventional antipsychotics. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 36(5), 465–480.Google Scholar

Meltzer, HY (2013). Update on typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs. Annu Rev Med, 64, 393–406.Google Scholar

Meltzer, HY, Alphs, L, Green, AI, et al.; International Suicide Prevention Trial Study Group (2003). Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 60, 82–91.Google Scholar

Mendoza, MC, Lindenmayer, JP (2009). N-desmethylclozapine: is there evidence for its antipsychotic potential? Clin Neuropharmacol, 32(3), 154–157.Google Scholar

Meyer, N, Gee, S, Whiskey, E, et al. (2015). Optimizing outcomes in clozapine rechallenge following neutropenia: a cohort analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 76(11), e1410–e1416.Google Scholar

Miyamoto, S, Miyake, N, Jarskog, LF, Fleischhacker, WW, Lieberman, JA (2012). Pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia: a critical review of the pharmacology and clinical effects of current and future therapeutic agents. Mol Psychiatry, 17(12), 1206–1227.Google Scholar

Morrison, AP, Pyle, M, Gumley, A, et al. (2019). Cognitive-behavioural therapy for clozapine-resistant schizophrenia: the FOCUS RCT. Health Technol Assess, 23(7), 1–144.Google Scholar

Mouchlianitis, E, Bloomfield, MA, Law, V, et al. (2016). Treatment-resistant schizophrenia patients show elevated anterior cingulate cortex glutamate compared to treatment-responsive. Schizophr Bull, 42(3), 744–752.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2014). Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults: prevention and management. Clinical guideline [CG178]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg178 (last accessed 4.10.19).Google Scholar

Nielsen, J, Meyer, JM (2012). Risk factors for ileus in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 38(3), 592–598.Google Scholar

Nielsen, J, Correll, CU, Manu, P, Kane, JM (2013). Termination of clozapine treatment due to medical reasons: when is it warranted and how can it be avoided? J Clin Psychiatry, 74(6), 603–613.Google Scholar

Norman, SM, Sullivan, KM, Liu, F, et al. (2017). Blood pressure and heart rate changes during clozapine treatment. Psychiatr Q, 88(3), 545–552.Google Scholar

Novick, D, Haro, JM, Perrin, E, Suarez, D, Texeira, JM (2009). Tolerability of outpatient antipsychotic treatment: 36-month results from the European Schizophrenia Outpatient Health Outcomes (SOHO) study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 19(8), 542–550.Google Scholar

O’Connor, WT, O’Shea, SD (2015). Clozapine and GABA transmission in schizophrenia disease models: establishing principles to guide treatments. Pharmacol Ther, 150, 47–80.Google Scholar

Park, YW, Kim, Y, Lee, JH (2012). Antipsychotic-induced sexual dysfunction and its management. World J Mens Health, 30(3), 153–159.Google Scholar

Perdigues, SR, Quecuti, RS, Mane, A, et al. (2016). An observational study of clozapine induced sedation and its pharmacological management. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 26(1), 156–161.Google Scholar

Pfuhlmann, B, Hiemke, C, Unterecker, S, et al. (2009). Toxic clozapine serum levels during inflammatory reactions. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 29(4), 392–394.Google Scholar

Polcwiartek, C, Nielsen, J (2016). The clinical potentials of adjunctive fluvoxamine to clozapine treatment: a systematic review. Psychopharmacology, 233(5), 741–750.Google Scholar

Potkin, SG, Basile, VS, Jin, Y, et al. (2003). D1 receptor alleles predict PET metabolic correlates of clinical response to clozapine. Mol Psychiatry, 8, 109–113.Google Scholar

Regen, F, Herzog, I, Hahn, E, et al. (2017). Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis: evidence for an immune-mediated mechanism from a patient-specific in-vitro approach. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 316, 10–16.Google Scholar

Remington, G, Lee, J, Agid, O, et al. (2016). Clozapine’s critical role in treatment resistant schizophrenia: ensuring both safety and use. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 15(9), 1193–1203.Google Scholar

Roberts, CE, Mortenson, LY, Merrill, DB, et al. (2011). Successful rechallenge with clozapine after eosinophilia. Am J Psychiatry, 168(11), 1147–1151.Google Scholar

Rogers, DP, Shramko, JK (2000). Therapeutic options in the treatment of clozapine-induced sialorrhea. Pharmacotherapy, 20(9), 1092–1095.Google Scholar

Ronaldson, KJ, Taylor, AJ, Fitzgerald, PB, et al. (2010). Diagnostic characteristics of clozapine-induced myocarditis identified by an analysis of 38 cases and 47 controls. J Clin Psychiatry, 71(8), 976–981.Google Scholar

Ronaldson, KJ, Fitzgerald, PB, Taylor, AJ, et al. (2012). Rapid clozapine dose titration and concomitant sodium valproate increase the risk of myocarditis with clozapine: a case-control study. Schizophr Res, 141(2–3), 173–178.Google Scholar

Rostami-Hodjegan, A, Amin, AM, Spencer, EP, et al. (2004). Influence of dose, cigarette smoking, age, sex, and metabolic activity on plasma clozapine concentrations: a predictive model and nomograms to aid clozapine dose adjustment and to assess compliance in individual patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 24(1), 70–78.Google Scholar

Roth, BL, Driscol, J (2013). PDSP Ki Database. Psychoactive Drug Screening Program (PDSP). University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the United States National Institute of Mental Health. Retrieved 10.10.13 from ‘Archived copy’. Archived from the original on 8.11.13. Retrieved 25.11.13.Google Scholar

Samara, MT, Dold, M, Gianatsi, M, et al. (2016). Efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of antipsychotics in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a network meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(3), 199–210.Google Scholar

Seeman, P (2014). Clozapine, a fast-off-D2 antipsychotic. ACS Chem Neurosci, 5, 24–29.Google Scholar

Selent, J, Lopez, L, Sanz, F, Pastor, M (2008). Multi-receptor binding profile of clozapine and olanzapine: a structural study based on the new β2 adrenergic receptor template. ChemMedChem, 3, 1194–1198.Google Scholar

Shirazi, A, Stubbs, B, Gomez, L, et al. (2016). Prevalence and predictors of clozapine-associated constipation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Mol Sci, 17(6), 863.Google Scholar

Siskind, D, McCartney, L, Goldschlager, R, Kisely, S (2016). Clozapine v. first- and second-generation antipsychotics in treatment refractory schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry, 209(5), 385–392.Google Scholar

Siskind, D, Siskind, V, Kisely, S (2017). Clozapine response rates among people with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: data from a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Psychiatry, 62(11), 772–777.Google Scholar

Sommer, IE, Begemann, MJ, Temmerman, A, Leucht, S (2012). Pharmacological augmentation strategies for schizophrenia patients with insufficient response to clozapine: a quantitative literature review. Schizophr Bull, 38(5), 1003–1011.Google Scholar

Sommer, IE, van Westrhenen, R, Begemann, MJH, et al. (2014). Efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents to improve symptoms in patients with schizophrenia: an update. Schizophr Bull, 40(1), 181–191.Google Scholar

Stoecker, ZR, George, WT, O’Brien, JB, et al. (2017). Clozapine usage increases the incidence of pneumonia compared with risperidone and the general population: a retrospective comparison of clozapine, risperidone, and the general population in a single hospital over 25 months. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 32(3), 155–160.Google Scholar

Suppes, T, Webb, A, Paul, B, et al. (1999). Clinical outcome in a randomized 1-year trial of clozapine versus treatment as usual for patients with treatment-resistant illness and a history of mania. Am J Psychiatry, 156, 1164–1169.Google Scholar

Suzuki, T, Remington, G, Uchida, H, et al. (2011a). Mangement of schizophrenia in late life with antipsychotic medications. A qualitative review. Drugs Aging, 28(12), 961–980.Google Scholar

Suzuki, T, Uchida, H, Watanabe, K, Kashima, H (2011b). Factors associated with response to clozapine in schizophrenia: a review. Psychopharmacol Bull, 44(1), 32–60.Google Scholar

Tanahashi, S, Yamamura, S, Nakagawa, M, Motomura, E, Okada, M (2012). Clozapine, but not haloperidol, enhances glial D-serine and L-glutamate release in rat frontal cortex and primary cultured astrocytes. Br J Pharmacol, 165(5), 1543–1555.Google Scholar

Testani, M Jr (1994). Clozapine-induced orthostatic hypotension treated with fludrocortisone. J Clin Psychiatry, 55(11), 497–498.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Lönnqvist, J, Wahlbeck, K, et al. (2009). 11-year follow-up of mortality in patients with schizophrenia: a population-based cohort study (FIN11 study). Lancet, 374(9690), 620–627.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Haukka, J, Taylor, M, et al. (2011). A nationwide cohort study of oral and depot antipsychotics after first hospitalization for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry, 168(6), 603–609.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Mittendorfer-Rutz, E, Majak, M, et al. (2017). Real-world effectiveness of antipsychotic treatments in a nationwide cohort of 29823 patients with schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(7), 686–693.Google Scholar

Veerman, SR, Schulte, PF, Begemann, MJ, de Haan, L (2014). Non-glutamatergic clozapine augmentation strategies: a review and meta-analysis. Pharmacopsychiatry, 47(7), 231–8.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (WHO) (2017). WHO Model Lists of Essential Medicines, 20th list, 24.1. Geneva: World Health Organization. Available at: www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/en/ (last accessed 9.8.17).Google Scholar

Wu, CS, Wang, SC, Gau, SSF, Tsai, HJ, Cheng, YC (2013). Association of stroke with the receptor-binding profiles of antipsychotics – a case-crossover study. Biol Psychiatry, 73, 414–421.Google Scholar

Wu, CS, Tsai, YT, Tsai, HJ (2015). Antipsychotic drugs and the risk of ventricular arrhythmia and/or sudden cardiac death: a nation-wide case-crossover study. J Am Heart Assoc, 4(2), e001568.Google Scholar

Wu, Y, Blichowski, M, Daskalakis, ZJ, et al. (2011). Evidence that clozapine directly interacts on the GABAB receptor. Neuroreport, 22(13), 637–641.Google Scholar

Xiang, YQ, Zhang, ZJ, Weng, YZ, et al. (2006). Serum concentrations of clozapine and norclozapine in the prediction of relapse of patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res, 83(2–3), 201–210.Google Scholar

Yang, SY, Liao, YT, Liu, HC, et al. (2013). Antipsychotic drugs, mood stabilizers, and risk of pneumonia in bipolar disorder: a nationwide case-control study. J Clin Psychiatry, 74, e79–e86.Google Scholar

Yoshimura, B, Yada, Y, So, R, Takaki, M, Yamada, N (2017). The critical treatment window of clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: secondary analysis of an observational study. Psychiatry Res, 250, 65–70.Google Scholar

Yusufi, B, Mukherjee, S, Flanagan, R, et al. (2007). Prevalence and nature of side effects during clozapine maintenance treatment and the relationship with clozapine dose and plasma concentration. Int J Psychopharmacol, 22, 238–243.Google Scholar

Zheng, W, Xiang, YT, Yang, XH, Xiang, YQ, de Leon, J (2017). Clozapine augmentation with antiepileptic drugs for treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry, 78(5), e498–e505.Google Scholar

Abou-Saleh, MT, Müller-Oerlinghausen, B, Coppen, AJ (2017). Lithium in the episode and suicide prophylaxis and in augmenting strategies in patients with unipolar depression. Int J Bipolar Disord, 5, 11.Google Scholar

Ahrens, B, Müller-Oerlinghausen, B (2001). Does lithium exert an independent antisuicidal effect? Pharmacopsychiatry, 34(4), 132–136.Google Scholar

Aubrey, RE, Scott, L, Cassidy, E (2017). Lithium monitoring patterns in the United Kingdom and Ireland: can shared care agreements play a role in monitoring quality? A systematic review. Ir J Psychol Med, 34, 127–140.Google Scholar

Baird-Gunning, J, Lea-Henry, T, Hoegberg, LCG, Gosselin, S, Roberts, DM (2017). Lithium poisoning. J Intensive Care Med, 32, 249–263.Google Scholar

Barker, WA, Scott, J, Eccleston, D (1987). The Newcastle chronic depression study: results of a treatment regime. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 2(3), 261–272.Google Scholar

Bauer, M, Gitlin, M (2016). The Essential Guide to Lithium Treatment. Berlin: Springer International Publishing AG.Google Scholar

Bauer, M, Dell’osso, L, Kasper, S, et al. (2013). Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy and quetiapine XR or lithium as add-on to antidepressants in patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. J Affect Disord, 151, 209–219.Google Scholar

Bell, AJ, Cole, A, Eccleston, D, Ferrier, IN (1993). Lithium neurotoxicity at normal therapeutic levels. Br J Psychiatry, 162, 689–692.Google Scholar

Beurel, E, Jope, RS (2006). The paradoxical pro- and anti-apoptotic actions of GSK3 in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis signaling pathways. Prog Neurobiol, 79(4), 173–189.Google Scholar

Beurel, E, Grieco, SF, Jope, RS (2015). Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3): regulation, actions, and diseases. Pharmacol Ther, 148, 114–131.Google Scholar

BNF (2017). British National Formulary. London: NICE.Google Scholar

Brunello, N, Tascedda, F (2003). Cellular mechanisms and second messengers: relevance to the psychopharmacology of bipolar disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 6, 181–189.Google Scholar

Cade, JF (1949). Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Aust, 2, 349–352.Google Scholar

Can, A, Schulze, TG, Gould, TD (2014). Molecular actions and clinical pharmacogenetics of lithium therapy. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 123, 3–16.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Smith, K, Burgess, S, et al. (2006). Lithium versus antidepressants in the long-term treatment of unipolar affective disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (4), CD003492.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Barbui, C, Salanti, G, et al. (2011). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs in acute mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet, 378, 1306–1315.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Hawton, K, Stockton, S, Geddes, JR (2013). Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ, 346, f3646.Google Scholar

Cleare, A, Pariante, CM, Young, AH, et al. (2015). Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol, 29, 459–525.Google Scholar

Cogen, PH, Whybrow, PC (2006). Lithium: a fascinating element in neuropsychiatry. In Bauer, M, Grof, P, Muller-Oerlinghausen, B, eds., Lithium in Psychiatry: The Comprehensive Guide. London: Informa Healthcare.Google Scholar

Ferrie, L, Young, AH, McQuade, R (2005). Effect of chronic lithium and withdrawal from chronic lithium on presynaptic dopamine function in the rat. J Psychopharmacol, 19(3), 229–234.Google Scholar

Franks, M, Macritchie, KA, Mahmood, T, Young, AH (2008). Bouncing back: is the bipolar rebound phenomenon peculiar to lithium? A retrospective naturalistic study. J Psychopharmacol, 22(4), 452–456. doi:10.1177/0269881107085238.Google Scholar

Gershon, S, Chengappa, KN, Malhi, GS (2009). Lithium specificity in bipolar illness: a classic agent for the classic disorder. Bipolar Disord, 11(Suppl 2), 34–44.Google Scholar

Ghasemi, M, Dehpour, AR (2011). The NMDA receptor/nitric oxide pathway: a target for the therapeutic and toxic effects of lithium. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 32, 420–434.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM (1994). Recurrence of mania after lithium withdrawal. Implications for the use of lithium in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 164(2), 149–152.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Haddad, PM, Ferrier, IN, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 495–553.Google Scholar

Grandjean, EM, Aubry, JM (2009). Lithium: updated human knowledge using an evidence-based approach. Part II: Clinical pharmacology and therapeutic monitoring. CNS Drugs, 23, 331–349.Google Scholar

Hajek, T, Cullis, J, Novak, T, et al. (2012). Hippocampal volumes in bipolar disorders: opposing effects of illness burden and lithium treatment. Bipolar Disord, 14, 261–270.Google Scholar

Hajek, T, Bauer, M, Simhandl, C, et al. (2014). Neuroprotective effect of lithium on hippocampal volumes in bipolar disorder independent of long-term treatment response. Psychol Med, 44, 507–517.Google Scholar

Hanson, ND, Nemeroff, CB, Owens, MJ (2011). Lithium, but not fluoxetine or the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 receptor antagonist R121919, increases cell proliferation in the adult dentate gyrus. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 337, 180–186.Google Scholar

Hayes, JF, Marston, L, Walters, K, et al. (2016a). Lithium vs. valproate vs. olanzapine vs. quetiapine as maintenance monotherapy for bipolar disorder: a population-based UK cohort study using electronic health records. World Psychiatry, 15, 53–58.Google Scholar

Hayes, JF, Pitman, A, Marston, L, et al. (2016b). Self-harm, unintentional injury, and suicide in bipolar disorder during maintenance mood stabilizer treatment: a UK population-based electronic health records study. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(6), 630–637. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0432.Google Scholar

Jope, RS, Nemeroff, CB (2016). Lithium to the rescue. Cerebrum, 2016, cer-02-16.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV, Sondergard, L, Forman, JL, Andersen, PK (2008). Lithium treatment and risk of dementia. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 65, 1331–1335.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV, Forman, JL, Andersen, PK (2010). Does lithium protect against dementia? Bipolar Disord, 12, 87–94.Google Scholar

Kessing, LV, Vradi, E, Andersen, PK (2014). Starting lithium prophylaxis early v. late in bipolar disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 205(3), 214–220. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.142802.Google Scholar

Machado-Vieira, R, Gattaz, WF, Zanetti, MV, et al. (2015). A longitudinal (6-week) 3T (1)H-MRS study on the effects of lithium treatment on anterior cingulate cortex metabolites in bipolar depression. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 25, 2311–2317.Google Scholar

Malhi, GS, Outhred, T (2016). Therapeutic mechanisms of lithium in bipolar disorder: recent advances and current understanding. CNS Drugs, 30, 931–949.Google Scholar

Malhi, GS, Adams, D, Berk, M (2009). Is lithium in a class of its own? A brief profile of its clinical use. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 43, 1096–1104.Google Scholar

Malhi, GS, Tanious, M, Das, P, Coulston, CM, Berk, M (2013). Potential mechanisms of action of lithium in bipolar disorder. Current understanding. CNS Drugs, 27(2), 135–153. doi:10.1007/s40263-013-0039-0.Google Scholar

Malhi, GS, Gessler, D, Outhred, T (2017). The use of lithium for the treatment of bipolar disorder: recommendations from clinical practice guidelines. J Affect Disord, 217, 266–280.Google Scholar

Mander, AJ, Loudon, JB (1988). Rapid recurrence of mania following abrupt discontinuation of lithium. Lancet, 2(8601), 15–17.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2014). Bipolar disorder: assessment and management. Clinical Guidelines [CG185]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

Nolen, WA, Licht, RW, Young, AH, et al.; Task Force on the treatment with lithium (2019). What is the optimal serum level for lithium in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder? A systematic review and recommendations from the ISBD/IGSLI Task Force on treatment with lithium. Bipolar Disord, 21(5), 394–409. doi:10.1111/bdi.12805.Google Scholar

Severus, E, Bauer, M, Geddes, J (2018). Efficacy and effectiveness of lithium in the long-term treatment of bipolar disorders: an update 2018. Pharmacopsychiatry, 51(5), 173–176. doi:10.1055/a-0627-7489.Google Scholar

Shelley, R (2004). Affective disorders: 2. Lithium and anticonvulsants. In King, DJ, ed., Seminars in Psychopharmacology, 2nd ed. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Song, J, Sjölander, A, Joas, E, et al. (1917). Suicidal behavior during lithium and valproate treatment: a within-individual 8-year prospective study of 50,000 patients with bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 174(8), 795–802. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.16050542.Google Scholar

Taylor, D, Paton, C, Kapur, S (2015). The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines in Psychiatry, 12th ed. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar

Tiihonen, J, Tanskanen, A, Hoti, F, et al. (2017). Pharmacological treatments and risk of readmission to hospital for unipolar depression in Finland: a nationwide cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry, 4(7), 547–553. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30134-7.Google Scholar

Viguera, AC, Nonacs, R, Cohen, LS, et al. (2000). Risk of recurrence of bipolar disorder in pregnant and nonpregnant women after discontinuing lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry, 157, 179–184.Google Scholar

Wakita, M, Nagami, H, Takase, Y, et al. (2015). Modifications of excitatory and inhibitory transmission in rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons by acute lithium treatment. Brain Res Bull, 117, 39–44.Google Scholar

Weeks, ME, Larson, ME (1937). J.A. Arfwedson and his services to chemistry. J Chem Educ, 14, 403–407.Google Scholar

Weisler, RH, Nolen, WA, Neijber, A, Hellqvist, A, Paulsson, B; Trial 144 Study Investigators (2011). Continuation of quetiapine versus switching to placebo or lithium for maintenance treatment of bipolar I disorder (Trial 144: a randomized controlled study). J Clin Psychiatry, 72(11), 1452–1464. doi:10.4088/JCP.11m06878. Erratum in: J Clin Psychiatry 2014, 75(3), 290.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (2000). Preventing Suicide: A Resource for General Physicians. Available at: www.who.int/mental_health/media/en/56.pdf (last accessed 22.8.19).Google Scholar

Young, AH (2014). Lithium and suicide. Lancet Psychiatry, 1(6), 483–484. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70320-7.Google Scholar

Acharya, S, Bussel, JB (2000). Hematologic toxicity of sodium valproate. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol, 22(1), 62–65.Google Scholar

Aiken, CB, Orr, C (2010). Rechallenge with lamotrigine after a rash: a prospective case series and review of the literature. Psychiatry, 7, 27–32.Google Scholar

Aliyev, NA, Aliyev, ZN (2008). Valproate (depakine-chrono) in the acute treatment of outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder without psychiatric comorbidity: randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Eur Psychiatry, 23, 109–114.Google Scholar

Allen, MH, Hirschfeld, RM, Wozniak, PJ, Baker, JD, Bowden, CL (2006). Linear relationship of valproate serum concentration to response and optimal serum levels for acute mania. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 272–275.Google Scholar

Angus-Lepan, H, Liu, R (2018). Weighing the risks of valproate in women who could become pregnant. BMJ, 361, k1596.Google Scholar

Azorin, JM, Bowden, CL, Garay, RP, et al. (2010). Possible new ways in the pharmacological treatment of bipolar disorder and comorbid alcoholism. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 6, 37–46.Google Scholar

Ballenger, JC, Post, RM (1978). Therapeutic effects of carbamazepine in affective illness: a preliminary report. Commun Psychopharmacol, 2, 159–175.Google Scholar

Ballenger, JC, Post, RM (1980). Carbamazepine in manic-depressive illness: a new treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 137, 782–790.Google Scholar

Belcastro, V, D’Egidio, C, Striano, P, Verrotti, A (2013). Metabolic and endocrine effects of valproic acid chronic treatment. Epilepsy Res, 107, 1–8.Google Scholar

Bjerkedal, T, Czeizel, A, Goujard, J, et al. (1982). Valproic acid and spina bifida. Lancet, 2, 1096.Google Scholar

BNF (2019). British National Formulary (online). London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceutical Press. Available at: www.medicinescomplete.com (last accessed 13.8.19).Google Scholar

Bond, DJ, Lam, RW, Yatham, LN (2010). Divalproex sodium versus placebo in the treatment of acute bipolar depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 124, 228–234.Google Scholar

Bowden, CL, Asnis, GM, Ginsberg, LD, et al. (2004). Safety and tolerability of lamotrigine for bipolar disorder. Drug Saf, 27, 173–184.Google Scholar

Brodie, MJ (1992). Lamotrigine. Lancet, 339, 1397–1400.Google Scholar

Brodie, MJ (2010). Antiepileptic drug therapy the story so far. Seizure, 19, 650–655.Google Scholar

Brodie, MJ, Mintzer, S, Pack, AM, et al. (2013). Enzyme induction with antiepileptic drugs: cause for concern? Epilepsia, 54, 11–27.Google Scholar

Bromley, R, Weston, J, Adab, N, et al. (2014). Treatment for epilepsy in pregnancy: neurodevelopmental outcomes in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (10), CD010236.Google Scholar

Campbell, E, Kennedy, F, Russell, A, et al. (2014). Malformation risks of antiepileptic drug monotherapies in pregnancy: updated results from the UK and Ireland Epilepsy and Pregnancy Registers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 85, 1029–1034.Google Scholar

Carrigan, PJ, Brinker, DR, Cavanaugh, JH, Lamm, JE, Cloyd, JC (1990). Absorption characteristics of a new valproate formulation: divalproex sodium-coated particles in capsules (Depakote Sprinkle). J Clin Pharmacol, 30, 743–747.Google Scholar

Chen, PS, Peng, GS, Li, G, et al. (2006). Valproate protects dopaminergic neurons in midbrain neuron/glia cultures by stimulating the release of neurotrophic factors from astrocytes. Mol Psychiatry, 11, 1116–1125.Google Scholar

Christensen, J, Gronborg, TK, Sorensen, MJ, et al. (2013). Prenatal valproate exposure and risk of autism spectrum disorders and childhood autism. JAMA, 309, 1696–1703.Google Scholar

Chung, S, Wang, N, Hank, N (2007). Comparative retention rates and long-term tolerability of new antiepileptic drugs. Seizure, 16, 296–304.Google Scholar

Cipriani, A, Barbui, C, Salanti, G, et al. (2011). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antimanic drugs in acute mania: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet, 378, 1306–1315.Google Scholar

Citrome, L, Volavka, J (2011). Pharmacological management of acute and persistent aggression in forensic psychiatry settings. CNS Drugs, 25, 1009–1021.Google Scholar

Cleare, A, Pariante, CM, Young, AH, et al.; Members of the Consensus Meeting (2015). Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol, 29, 459–525.Google Scholar

Cohen, AF, Land, GS, Breimer, DD, et al. (1987). Lamotrigine, a new anticonvulsant: pharmacokinetics in normal humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 42, 535–541.Google Scholar

Cohen, MJ, Meador, KJ, Browning, N, et al. (2011). Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure: motor, adaptive, and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 3 years. Epilepsy Behav, 22, 240–246.Google Scholar

Cohen, MJ, Meador, KJ, Browning, N, et al.; NEAD study group (2013). Fetal antiepileptic drug exposure: adaptive and emotional/behavioral functioning at age 6 years. Epilepsy Behav, 29, 308–315.Google Scholar

Correll, CU, Rubio, JM, Inczedy-Farkas, G, et al. (2017). Efficacy of 42 pharmacologic cotreatment strategies added to antipsychotic monotherapy in schizophrenia: systematic overview and quality appraisal of the meta-analytic evidence. JAMA Psychiatry, 74, 675–684.Google Scholar

Crawford, MJ, Sanatinia, R, Barrett, B, et al. (2018). Lamotrigine for people with borderline personality disorder: a RCT. Health Technol Assess, 22, 1–68.Google Scholar

Cummings, C, Stewart, M, Stevenson, M, Morrow, J, Nelson, J (2011). Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to lamotrigine, sodium valproate and carbamazepine. Arch Dis Child, 96, 643–647.Google Scholar

Davis, LL, Ryan, W, Adinoff, B, Petty, F (2000). Comprehensive review of the psychiatric uses of valproate. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 20, 1S–17S.Google Scholar

Dias, VV, Balanza-Martinez, V, Soeiro-de-Souza, MG, et al. (2012). Pharmacological approaches in bipolar disorders and the impact on cognition: a critical overview. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 126, 315–331.Google Scholar

Drevets, WC (2000). Neuroimaging studies of mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry, 48, 813–829.Google Scholar

Drugbank (2019a). Lamotrigine. Available at: www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00555 (last accessed 6.8.19).Google Scholar

Drugbank (2019b). Carbamazepine. Available at: www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00564 (last accessed 6.8.19).Google Scholar

electronic Medicines Compendium (2019a). Summary of Product Characteristics: Depakote. SANOFI. Available at: www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/6113/smpc (last accessed 6.8.19).Google Scholar

electronic Medicines Compendium (2019b). Summary of Product Characteristics: Lamotrigine. Accord Healthcare Limited. Available at: www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/6091/smpc (last accessed 6.8.19).Google Scholar

electronic Medicines Compendium (2019c). Summary of Product Characteristics: Carbamazepine. Novartis Pharmaceuticals UK Ltd. Available at: www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/1040/smpc (last accessed 6.8.19).Google Scholar

Elkjaer, LS, Bech, BH, Sun, Y, Laursen, TM, Christensen, J (2018). Association between prenatal valproate exposure and performance on standardized language and mathematics tests in school-aged children. JAMA Neurol, 19, 19.Google Scholar

European Medicines Agency (2018). New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Press release, 23 March 2018. Available at: www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Press_release/2018/03/WC500246391.pdf (last accessed 22.8.19).Google Scholar

Fleming, J, Chetty, M (2005). Psychotropic drug interactions with valproate. Clin Neuropharmacol, 28, 96–101.Google Scholar

Franks, M, Macritchie, KA, Mahmood, T, Young, AH (2008). Bouncing back: is the bipolar rebound phenomenon peculiar to lithium? A retrospective naturalistic study. J Psychopharmacol, 22, 452–456.Google Scholar

Frye, MA, Ketter, TA, Kimbrell, TA, et al. (2000). A placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine and gabapentin monotherapy in refractory mood disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 20, 607–614.Google Scholar

Geddes, JR, Calabrese, JR, Goodwin, GM (2009). Lamotrigine for treatment of bipolar depression: independent meta-analysis and meta-regression of individual patient data from five randomised trials. Br J Psychiatry, 194, 4–9.Google Scholar

Geddes, JR, Gardiner, A, Rendell, J, et al.; CEQUEL Investigators and Collaborators (2016). Comparative evaluation of quetiapine plus lamotrigine combination versus quetiapine monotherapy (and folic acid versus placebo) in bipolar depression (CEQUEL): a 2 × 2 factorial randomised trial. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 31–39.Google Scholar

Ghabrash, MF, Comai, S, Tabaka, J, et al. (2016). Valproate augmentation in a subgroup of patients with treatment-resistant unipolar depression. World J Biol Psychiatry, 17, 165–170.Google Scholar

Ghodke-Puranik, Y, Thorn, CF, Lamba, JK, et al. (2013). Valproic acid pathway: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacogenet Genomics, 23, 236–241.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Bowden, CL, Calabrese, JR, et al. (2004). A pooled analysis of 2 placebo-controlled 18-month trials of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance in bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 65, 432–441.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Haddad, PM, Ferrier, IN, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 495–553.Google Scholar

Grunze, H, Kotlik, E, Costa, R, et al. (2015). Assessment of the efficacy and safety of eslicarbazepine acetate in acute mania and prevention of recurrence: experience from multicentre, double-blind, randomised phase II clinical studies in patients with bipolar disorder I. J Affect Disord, 174, 70–82.Google Scholar

Hammond, CJ, Niciu, MJ, Drew, S, Arias, AJ (2015). Anticonvulsants for the treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome and alcohol use disorders. CNS Drugs, 29, 293–311.Google Scholar

Haymond, J, Ensom, MH (2010). Does valproic acid warrant therapeutic drug monitoring in bipolar affective disorder? Ther Drug Monit, 32, 19–29.Google Scholar

Hernandez-Diaz, S, Smith, CR, Shen, A, et al.; North American AED Pregnancy Registry (2012). Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy. Neurology, 78, 1692–1699.Google Scholar

Huband, N, Ferriter, M, Nathan, R, Jones, H (2010). Antiepileptics for aggression and associated impulsivity. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (2), CD003499.Google Scholar

Hurley, SC (2002). Lamotrigine update and its use in mood disorders. Ann Pharmacother, 36, 860–873.Google Scholar

Jentink, J, Loane, MA, Dolk, H, et al.; EUROCAT Antiepileptic Study Working Group (2010). Valproic acid monotherapy in pregnancy and major congenital malformations. N Engl J Med, 362, 2185–2193.Google Scholar

Kaye, NS, Graham, J, Roberts, J, Thompson, T, Nanry, K (2007). Effect of open-label lamotrigine as monotherapy and adjunctive therapy on the self-assessed cognitive function scores of patients with bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 27, 387–391.Google Scholar

Ketter, TA, Post, RM, Parekh, PI, Worthington, K (1995). Addition of monoamine oxidase inhibitors to carbamazepine: preliminary evidence of safety and antidepressant efficacy in treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 56(10), 471–475.Google Scholar

Kleindienst, N, Greil, W (2000). Differential efficacy of lithium and carbamazepine in the prophylaxis of bipolar disorder: results of the MAP study. Neuropsychobiology, 42(Suppl 1), 2–10.Google Scholar

Klotz, U, Antonin, KH (1977). Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of sodium valproate. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 21, 736–743.Google Scholar

Kramlinger, KG, Post, RM (1989). The addition of lithium to carbamazepine. Antidepressant efficacy in treatment-resistant depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 46, 794–800.Google Scholar

Leach, MJ, Marden, CM, Miller, AA (1986). Pharmacological studies on lamotrigine, a novel potential antiepileptic drug: II. Neurochemical studies on the mechanism of action. Epilepsia, 27, 490–497.Google Scholar

Lempérière, T (2001). Brief history of the development of valproate in bipolar disorders. Encephale, 27, 365–372.Google Scholar

Leucht, S, Helfer, B, Dold, M, Kissling, W, McGrath, J (2014). Carbamazepine for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD001258.Google Scholar

Lieb, K, Vollm, B, Rucker, G, Timmer, A, Stoffers, JM (2010). Pharmacotherapy for borderline personality disorder: Cochrane systematic review of randomised trials. Br J Psychiatry, 196, 4–12.Google Scholar

Lloyd, KA (2013). A scientific review: mechanisms of valproate-mediated teratogenesis. Biosci Horizons, 6, hzt003-hzt03.Google Scholar

Locharernkul, C, Shotelersuk, V, Hirankarn, N (2011). Pharmacogenetic screening of carbamazepine-induced severe cutaneous allergic reactions. J Clin Neurosci, 18, 1289–1294.Google Scholar

Löscher, W (1999). The discovery of valproate. In Löscher, W, ed., Valproate. Basel: Birkhäuser Basel, pp. 1–3.Google Scholar

Meador, K, Reynolds, MW, Crean, S, Fahrbach, K, Probst, C (2008). Pregnancy outcomes in women with epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of published pregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Res, 81, 1–13.Google Scholar

Molgaard-Nielsen, D, Hviid, A (2011). Newer-generation antiepileptic drugs and the risk of major birth defects. JAMA, 305, 1996–2002.Google Scholar

Mula, M, Pini, S, Cassano, GB (2007). The role of anticonvulsant drugs in anxiety disorders: a critical review of the evidence. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 27, 263–272.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) (2009). Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management. Clinical guideline [CG78]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg78 (last accessed 22.8.19).Google Scholar

Nishino, S, Ohtomo, K, Numata, Y, et al. (2012). Divergent effects of lithium and sodium valproate on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production in human astrocytoma cells at therapeutic concentrations. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 39, 17–22.Google Scholar

Nugent, AC, Carlson, PJ, Bain, EE, et al. (2013). Mood stabilizer treatment increases serotonin type 1 A receptor binding in bipolar depression. J Psychopharmacol, 27, 894–902.Google Scholar

Okuma, T, Kishimoto, A (1998). A history of investigation on the mood stabilizing effect of carbamazepine in Japan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 52, 3–12.Google Scholar

Okuma, T, Kishimoto, A, Inoue, K, Matsumoto, H, Ogura, A (1973). Anti-manic and prophylactic effects of carbamazepine (Tegretol) on manic depressive psychosis. A preliminary report. Folia Psychiatr Neurol Jpn, 27, 283–297.Google Scholar

Ornoy, A (2009). Valproic acid in pregnancy: how much are we endangering the embryo and fetus? Reprod Toxicol, 28, 1–10.Google Scholar

Perugi, G, Toni, C, Frare, F, et al. (2002). Effectiveness of adjunctive gabapentin in resistant bipolar disorder: is it due to anxious-alcohol abuse comorbidity? J Clin Psychopharmacol, 22, 584–591.Google Scholar

Peterson, GM, Naunton, M (2005). Valproate: a simple chemical with so much to offer. J Clin Pharm Ther, 30, 417–421.Google Scholar

Rajkowska, G (2000). Postmortem studies in mood disorders indicate altered numbers of neurons and glial cells. Biol Psychiatry, 48, 766–777.Google Scholar

Ramsay, RE, Pellock, JM, Garnett, WR, et al. (1991). Pharmacokinetics and safety of lamotrigine (Lamictal) in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Res, 10, 191–200.Google Scholar

Rapoport, SI, Basselin, M, Kim, HW, Rao, JS (2009). Bipolar disorder and mechanisms of action of mood stabilizers. Brain Res Rev, 61, 185–209.Google Scholar

Reid, JG, Gitlin, MJ, Altshuler, LL (2013). Lamotrigine in psychiatric disorders. J Clin Psychiatry, 74, 675–684.Google Scholar

Robert, E, Guibaud, P (1982). Maternal valproic acid and congenital neural tube defects. Lancet, 2, 937.Google Scholar

Rosenberg, G (2007). The mechanisms of action of valproate in neuropsychiatric disorders: can we see the forest for the trees? Cell Mol Life Sci, 64, 2090–2103.Google Scholar

Sahraian, A, Bigdeli, M, Ghanizadeh, A, Akhondzadeh, S (2014). Topiramate as an adjuvant treatment for obsessive compulsive symptoms in patients with bipolar disorder: a randomized double blind placebo controlled clinical trial. J Affect Disord, 166, 201–205.Google Scholar

Sandson, NB, Marcucci, C, Bourke, DL, Smith-Lamacchia, R (2006). An interaction between aspirin and valproate: the relevance of plasma protein displacement drug-drug interactions. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1891–1896.Google Scholar

Schule, C, Baghai, TC, Eser, D, Nothdurfter, C, Rupprecht, R (2009). Lithium but not carbamazepine augments antidepressant efficacy of mirtazapine in unipolar depression: an open-label study. World J Biol Psychiatry, 10, 390–399.Google Scholar

Seo, HJ, Chiesa, A, Lee, SJ, et al. (2011). Safety and tolerability of lamotrigine: results from 12 placebo-controlled clinical trials and clinical implications. Clin Neuropharmacol, 34, 39–47.Google Scholar

Serrani Azcurra, DJ (2013). Lamotrigine rechallenge after a skin rash. A combined study of open cases and a meta-analysis. Rev Psiquiatr Salud Ment, 6, 144–149.Google Scholar

Sie, M (2014). Mood stabilisers in the management of bipolar affective disorder. Prog Neurol Psychiatry, 18, 22–32.Google Scholar

Smith, LA, Cornelius, VR, Azorin, JM, et al. (2010). Valproate for the treatment of acute bipolar depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 122, 1–9.Google Scholar

Solmi, M, Veronese, N, Zaninotto, L, et al. (2016). Lamotrigine compared to placebo and other agents with antidepressant activity in patients with unipolar and bipolar depression: a comprehensive meta-analysis of efficacy and safety outcomes in short-term trials. CNS Spectr, 21, 403–418.Google Scholar

Stoffers, J, Vollm, BA, Rucker, G, et al. (2010). Pharmacological interventions for borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (6), CD005653.Google Scholar

Takezaki, H, Hanaoka, M (1971). The use of carbamazepine (Tegretol) in the control of manic depressive psychosis and other manic depressive states. Saishin Igaku, 13, 1310–1318 (in Japanese).Google Scholar

Tanoshima, M, Kobayashi, T, Tanoshima, R, et al. (2015). Risks of congenital malformations in offspring exposed to valproic acid in utero: a systematic review and cumulative meta-analysis. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 98, 417–441.Google Scholar

Taylor, DM, Cornelius, V, Smith, L, Young, AH (2014). Comparative efficacy and acceptability of drug treatments for bipolar depression: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 130, 452–469.Google Scholar

Taylor, D, Paton, C, Kapur, S (2015). The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines in Psychiatry, 12th ed. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar

Thomas, SV, Ajaykumar, B, Sindhu, K, et al. (2008). Motor and mental development of infants exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero. Epilepsy Behav, 13, 229–236.Google Scholar

Thorn, CF, Leckband, SG, Kelsoe, J, et al. (2011). PharmGKB summary: carbamazepine pathway. Pharmacogenet Genomics, 21, 906–910.Google Scholar

Tomson, T, Battino, D, Perucca, E (2016). Valproic acid after five decades of use in epilepsy: time to reconsider the indications of a time-honoured drug. Lancet Neurol, 15, 210–218.Google Scholar

Tseng, PT, Chen, YW, Chung, W, et al. (2016). Significant effect of valproate augmentation therapy in patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis study. Medicine, 95, e2475.Google Scholar

Uguz, F, Sharma, V (2016). Mood stabilizers during breastfeeding: a systematic review of the recent literature. Bipolar Disord, 18, 325–333.Google Scholar

Vajda, FJ, Donnan, GA, Phillips, J, Bladin, PF (1981). Human brain, plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid concentration of sodium valproate after 72 hours of therapy. Neurology, 31, 486–487.Google Scholar

Vajda, FJ, O’Brien, TJ, Graham, JE, Lander, CM, Eadie, MJ (2013). Dose dependence of fetal malformations associated with valproate. Neurology, 81, 999–1003.Google Scholar

Vasudev, K, Keown, P, Gibb, I, McAllister-Williams, RH (2010). Hematological effects of valproate in psychiatric patients: what are the risk factors? J Clin Psychopharmacol, 30(3), 282–285.Google Scholar

van der Loos, ML, Mulder, PG, Hartong, EG, et al.; LamLit Study Group (2009). Efficacy and safety of lamotrigine as add-on treatment to lithium in bipolar depression: a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry, 70, 223–231.Google Scholar

Vella, T, Mifsud, J (2014). Interactions between valproic acid and quetiapine/olanzapine in the treatment of bipolar disorder and the role of therapeutic drug monitoring. J Pharmacy Pharmacol, 66, 747–759.Google Scholar

Veroniki, AA, Cogo, E, Rios, P, et al. (2017a). Comparative safety of anti-epileptic drugs during pregnancy: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of congenital malformations and prenatal outcomes. BMC Med, 15, 95.Google Scholar

Veroniki, AA, Rios, P, Cogo, E, et al. (2017b). Comparative safety of antiepileptic drugs for neurological development in children exposed during pregnancy and breast feeding: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 7, e017248.Google Scholar

Vieta, E, Manuel Goikolea, J, Martinez-Aran, A, et al. (2006). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, prophylaxis study of adjunctive gabapentin for bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 67, 473–477.Google Scholar

Wagner, KD, Kowatch, RA, Emslie, GJ, et al. (2006). A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oxcarbazepine in the treatment of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry, 163, 1179–1186. Erratum in: Am J Psychiatry 2006, 163(10), 1843.Google Scholar

Wang, Y, Xia, J, Helfer, B, Li, C, Leucht, S (2008). Valproate for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD004028.Google Scholar

Wegner, C, Nau, H (1992). Alteration of embryonic folate metabolism by valproic acid during organogenesis: implications for mechanism of teratogenesis. Neurology, 42, 17–24.Google Scholar

Weisler, RH, Calabrese, JR, Bowden, CL, et al. (2008). Discovery and development of lamotrigine for bipolar disorder: a story of serendipity, clinical observations, risk taking, and persistence. J Affect Disord, 108, 1–9.Google Scholar

Wieck, A, Jones, S (2018). Dangers of valproate in pregnancy. BMJ, 361, k1609.Google Scholar

Yasam, VR, Jakki, SL, Senthil, V, et al. (2016). A pharmacological overview of lamotrigine for the treatment of epilepsy. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol, 9, 1533–1546.Google Scholar

Yatham, LN, Kennedy, SH, Parikh, SV, et al. (2018). Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) 2018 guidelines for the management of patients with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord, 20, 97–170.Google Scholar

Yildiz, A, Nikodem, M, Vieta, E, Correll, CU, Baldessarini, RJ (2015). A network meta-analysis on comparative efficacy and all-cause discontinuation of antimanic treatments in acute bipolar mania. Psychol Med, 45, 299–317.Google Scholar

Zhang, L, Li, H, Li, S, Zou, X (2016). Reproductive and metabolic abnormalities in women taking valproate for bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 202, 26–31.Google Scholar

Zhang, ZJ, Tan, QR, Tong, Y, et al. (2008). The effectiveness of carbamazepine in unipolar depression: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Affect Disord, 109, 91–97.Google Scholar

Zhou, X, Ravindran, AV, Qin, B, et al. (2015). Comparative efficacy, acceptability, and tolerability of augmentation agents in treatment-resistant depression: systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 76, e487–e498.Google Scholar

Adler, L, Wilen, T, Zhang, S, et al. (2009). Retrospective safety analysis of atomoxetine in adult ADHD patients with or without comorbid alcohol abuse and dependence. Am J Addict, 18(5), 393–401.Google Scholar

Advokat, C (2010). What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 34(8), 1255–1266.Google Scholar

Advokat, C, Lane, SM, Luo, C (2011). College students with and without ADHD: comparison of self-report of medication usage, study habits, and academic achievement. J Atten Disord, 15, 656–666.Google Scholar

Ameis, SH, Szatmari, P (2012). Imaging-genetics in autism spectrum disorder: advances, translational impact and future directions. Front Psychiatry, 3(46), 1–13.Google Scholar

Ameis, SH, Kassee, C, Corbett-Dick, P, et al. (2018). Systematic review and guide to management of core and psychiatric symptoms in youth with autism. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 138, 379–400.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Andrew, BN, Guan, NC, Jaafar, NRN (2018). The use of methylphenidate for physical and psychological symptoms in cancer patients: a review. Curr Drug Targets, 19(8), 877–887.Google Scholar

Asherson, P, Young, AH, Eich-Höchli, D, et al. (2014). Differential diagnosis, comorbidity and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in relation to bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder in adults. Curr Med Res Opin, 30(8), 1657–1672.Google Scholar

Biederman, J, Lindsten, A, Sluth, LB, et al. (2019). Vortioxetine for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, proof-of-concept study. J Psychopharmacol, 33(4), 511–521.Google Scholar

Bijlenga, D, Kulcu, S, van Gellecum, T, Eryigit, Z, Kooij, JJS (2017). Persistence and adherence to psychostimulants, and psychological well-being up to 3 years after specialized treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a naturalistic follow-up study. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 37(6), 689–696.Google Scholar

Boilson, M, Shah, P and Royal College of Psychiatrists in Scotland special interest group in ADHD (2017). ADHD in Adults: Good Practice Guidelines, London: The Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Bolea-Alamanac, BM, Green, A, Verma, G, Maxwell, P, Davies, SJC (2013). Methylphenidate use in pregnancy and lactation: a systematic review of evidence. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 77(1), 96–101.Google Scholar

Bolea-Alamañac, B, Nutt, DJ, Adamou, M, et al. (2014). Evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: update on recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 28(3), 179–203.Google Scholar

Bonell, CP, Hickson, FC, Weatherburn, P, Reid, DS (2010). Methamphetamine use among gay men across the UK. Int J Drug Policy, 21(3), 244–246.Google Scholar

Bourne, A, Reid, D, Hickson, F, Torres-Rueda, S, Weatherburn, P (2015). Illicit drug use in sexual settings (‘chemsex’) and HIV/STI transmission risk behaviour among gay men in south London: findings from a qualitative study. Sex Transm Infect, 91(8), 564–568.Google Scholar

Brook, DW, Brook, JS, Zhang, C, Koppel, J (2010). Association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescence and substance use disorders in adulthood. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 164(10), 930–934.Google Scholar

Butterfield, ME, Saal, J, Young, B, Young, JL (2016). Supplementary guanfacine hydrochloride as a treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: a double blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychiatry Res, 236, 136–141.Google Scholar

Caisley, H, Müller, U (2012). Adherence to medication in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and pro re nata dosing of psychostimulants: a systematic review. Eur Psychiatry, 27, 343–349.Google Scholar

Canadian ADHD Resource Alliance (CADDRA) (2018). Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines, 4th ed. Toronto: CADDRA. Available at: www.caddra.ca/canadian-adhd-practice-guidelines (last accessed 15.8.18).Google Scholar

Castaldi, S, Gelatti, U, Orizio, G, et al. (2012). Use of cognitive enhancement medication among Northern Italian university students. J Addict Med, 6, 112–117.Google Scholar

Caye, A, Swanson, JM, Coghill, D, Rohde, LA (2019). Treatment strategies for ADHD: an evidence-based guide to select optimal treatment. Mol Psychiatry, 24, 390–408.Google Scholar

Cederström, C (2016). Like it or not ‘smart drugs’ are coming to the office. Harvard Business Review. Available at: https://hbr.org/2016/05/like-it-or-not-smart-drugs-are-coming-to-the-office (last accessed 1.11.18).Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2007). Methamphetamine Use and Risk for HIV/AIDS. Available at: file:///C:/Users/K1517101/Downloads/cdc_11778_DS1.pdf (last accessed 1.8.18).Google Scholar

Chan, E, Fogler, JM, Hammerness, PG (2016). Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a systematic review. JAMA, 315, 1997–2008.Google Scholar

Chang, Z, Lichtenstein, P, D’Onofrio, BM, Sjölander, A, Larsson, H (2014). Serious transport accidents in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the effect of medication: a population-based study. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 319–325.Google Scholar

Chang, Z, D’Onofrio, BM, Quinn, PD, Lichtenstein, P, Larsson, H (2016). Medication for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and risk for depression: a nationwide longitudinal cohort study. Biol Psychiatry, 80, 916–922.Google Scholar

Chang, Z, Ghirardi, L, Quinn, PD, et al. (2019). Risks and benefits of ADHD medication on behavioral and neuropsychiatric outcomes: a qualitative review of pharmacoepidemiology studies using linked prescription databases. Biol Psychiatry [Epub ahead of print] doi:doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.009.Google Scholar

Chavez, C, Hollaus, M, Scarr, E, et al. (2010). The effect of estrogen on dopamine and serotonin receptor and transporter levels in the brain: an autoradiography study. Brain Res, 1321, 51–59.Google Scholar

Chen, Q, Hartman, CA, Haavik, J, et al. (2018). Common psychiatric and metabolic comorbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a population-based cross-sectional study PLoS One, 13(9), e0204516.Google Scholar

Coghill, D, Chen, W, Silva, D (2019). Organizing and delivering treatment for ADHD. In Rohde, LA, Buitelaar, JK, Gerlach, M, Faraone, SV, eds., The World Federation of ADHD Guide, pp. 93–109. [open access pdf and e-book: http://cpo-media.net/ADHD/2019/ebook/HTML/93/].Google Scholar

Cooper, RE, Williams, E, Seegobin, S, et al. (2017). Cannabinoids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomised-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 27, 795–808.Google Scholar

Cope, LC, Abuzour, AS, Tully, MP (2016). Nonmedical prescribing: where are we now? Ther Adv Drug Saf, 7(4), 165–172.Google Scholar

Cortese, S (2018). Are the effects of methylphenidate uncertain? Ir J Psychol Med, 35, 163–167.Google Scholar

Cortese, S, Tessari, L (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity: update 2016. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 19(1), 4.Google Scholar

Cortese, S, Brown, TE, Corkum, P, et al. (2013). Assessment and management of sleep problems in youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52, 784–796.Google Scholar

Cortese, S, D’Acunto, G, Konofal, E, Masi, G, Vitiello, B (2017). New formulations of methylphenidate for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and tolerability. CNS Drugs, 31, 149–160.Google Scholar

Cortese, S, Adamo, N, Del Giovane, C, et al. (2018). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry, 5, 727–738.Google Scholar

Coulter, A, Collins, A (2011). Making shared decision-making a reality: no decision about me, without me. London: The King’s Fund.Google Scholar

Crunelle, CL, van den Brink, W, Moggi, F, et al.; ICASA consensus group, Matthys, F (2018). International consensus statement on screening, diagnosis and treatment of substance use disorder patients with comorbid attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Addict Res, 24(1), 43–51.Google Scholar

Cunill, R, Castells, X, Tobias, A, Capellà, D (2015). Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with co-morbid drug dependence. J Psychopharmacol, 29, 15–23.Google Scholar

Dalley, JW, Roiser, JP (2012). Dopamine, serotonin and impulsivity. Neuroscience, 215, 42–58.Google Scholar

De Crescenzo, F, Cortese, S, Adamo, N, Janiri, L (2017). Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of adults with ADHD: a meta-review. Evid Based Ment Health, 20, 4–11.Google Scholar

DeSaints, AD, Webb, EM, Noar, SM (2008). Illicit use of prescription ADHD medications on a college campus: a multimethodological approach. J Am Coll Health, 75, 315–324.Google Scholar

Diav-Citrin, O, Shechtman, S, Arnon, J, et al. (2016). Methylphenidate in pregnancy: a multicentre, prospective, comparative, observational study. J Clin Psychiatry, 77(9), 1176–1181.Google Scholar

Díaz-Román, A, Mitchell, R, Cortese, S (2018). Sleep in adults with ADHD: systematic review and meta-analysis of subjective and objective studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 89, 61–71.Google Scholar

Dietz, P, Soyka, M, Franke, AG (2016). Pharmacological neuroenhancement in the field of economics: poll results from an online survey. Front Psychol, 7(520), 1–8.Google Scholar

Driver & Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) (2019). Assessing fitness to drive: a guide for medical professionals. Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/ assessing-fitness-to-drive-a-guide-for-medical-professionals (last accessed 1.04.19).Google Scholar

DuPaul, GJ, Weyandt, LL, Rossi, JS, et al. (2012). Double-bind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in college students with ADHD. J Atten Disord, 16, 202–220.Google Scholar

Eakle, R, Mbogua, J, Mutanha, N, Ress, H (2018). Exploring acceptability of oral PrEP prior to implementation among female sex workers in South Africa. J Int AIDS Soc, 21, e25081.Google Scholar

Edvinsson, D, Ekselius, L (2018a). Long-term tolerability and safety of pharmacological treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a 6-year prospective naturalistic study. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 38(4), 370–375.Google Scholar

Edvinsson, D, Ekselius, L (2018b). Six-year outcome in subjects diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as adults. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 268(4), 337–347.Google Scholar

Faraone, SV (2018). The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 87, 255–270.Google Scholar

Findling, RL, Adler, LA, Spencer, TJ, et al. (2019). Dasotraline in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a six-week, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 29(2), 80–89.Google Scholar

Fredriksen, M, Dahl, AA, Martinsen, EW, et al. (2014). Effectiveness of one-year pharmacological treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an open-label prospective study of time in treatment, dose, side-effects and comorbidity. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 24, 1873–1884.Google Scholar

Galbraith, N (2015). The methamphetamine problem. BJPsych Bull, 39, 218–220.Google Scholar

Gillberg, C, Gillberg, IC, Rasmussen, P, et al. (2004). Co-existing disorders in ADHD: implications for diagnosis and intervention. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 13(Suppl 1), 80–92.Google Scholar

Gillies, GE, McArthur, S (2010). Estrogen actions in the brain and the basis for differential action in men and women: a case for sex-specific medicines. Pharmacol Rev, 62(2), 155–198.Google Scholar

Ginsberg, Y, Lindefors, N (2012). Methylphenidate treatment of adult male prison inmates with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial with open-label extension. Br J Psychiatry, 200(1), 68–73.Google Scholar

Golubchik, P, Sever, J, Zalsman, G, Weizman, A (2008). Methylphenidate in the treatment of female adolescents with cooccurrence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder: a preliminary open-label trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 23(4), 228–231.Google Scholar

Gonzales, R, Mooney, L, Rawson, RA (2010). The methamphetamine problem in the United States. Annu Rev Public Health, 31, 385–398.Google Scholar

Gould, ON, Doucette, C (2018). Self-management of adherence to prescribed stimulants in college students with ADD/ADHD. J Atten Disord, 22, 349–355.Google Scholar

Graham, J, Coghill, D (2008). Adverse effects of pharmacotherapies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: epidemiology, prevention and management. CNS Drugs, 22(3), 213–237.Google Scholar

Graham, J, Banaschewski, T, Buitelaar, J, et al. (2011). European guidelines on managing adverse effects of medication for ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 20(1), 17–37.Google Scholar

Greely, H, Sanakian, B, Harris, J, et al. (2008). Towards responsible use of cognitive-enhancing drugs by the healthy. Nature, 456, 702–705.Google Scholar

Halkitis, PN (2010). Reframing HIV prevention for gay men in the United States. Am Psychol, 65(8), 752–763.Google Scholar

Halkitis, PN, Levy, MD, Solomon, TM (2016). Temporal relations between methamphetamine use and HIV seroconversion in gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. J Health Psychol, 21(1), 93–99.Google Scholar

Halperin, JM, Marks, DJ (2019). Practitioner review: assessment and treatment of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry [Epub ahead of print] doi:10.1111/jcpp.13014.Google Scholar

Harrison, AG, Edwards, MJ, Parker, KCH (2007). Identifying students faking ADHD: preliminary findings and strategies for detection. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 22, 577–588.Google Scholar

Heal, DJ, Smith, S, Gosden, J, Nutt, DJ (2013). Amfetamine, past and present: a pharmacological and clinical perspective. J Psychopharmacol, 27, 1–18.Google Scholar

Holloway, K, Bennett, T (2012). Prescription drug misuse among university staff and students: a survey of motives, nature and extent. Drug Educ Prev Polic, 19, 137–144.Google Scholar

Hooberman, D, Stein, TA (1984). Treatment of attention deficit and borderline personality disorders with psychostimulants: case report. J Clin Psychiatry, 45, 441–442.Google Scholar

Hornig-Rohan, M, Amsterdam, JD (2002). Venlafaxine versus stimulant therapy in patients with dual diagnosis ADD and depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 26(3), 585–589.Google Scholar

Humphreys, KL, Eng, T, Lee, SS (2013). Stimulant medication and substance use outcomes: a meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 740–749.Google Scholar

Husain, M, Mehta, MA (2011). Cognitive enhancement by drugs in health and disease. Trends Cogn Sci, 15(1), 28–36.Google Scholar

Huss, M, McBurnett, K, Cutler, AJ, et al. (2019). Distinguishing the efficacy and sedative effects of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 29, 432–443.Google Scholar

Iaccarino, MA, Philpotts, LL, Zafonte, R, Biederman, J (2018). Stimulant use in the management of mild traumatic brain injury: a qualitative literature review. J Atten Disord [Epub ahead of print] doi:10.1177/1087054718759752.Google Scholar

Ioannidis, K, Chamberlain, SR, Müller, U (2014a). Ostracizing caffeine from the pharmacological arsenal for ADHD: was this a correct decision? A literature review. J Psychopharmacol, 28, 830–836.Google Scholar

Ioannidis, K, Serfontein, J, Müller, U (2014b). Bulimia nervosa patient diagnosed with previously unsuspected adult ADHD: clinical case report, literature review, and diagnostic challenges. Int J Eat Disord, 47(4), 431–436.Google Scholar

Iwanami, A, Saito, K, Fujiwara, M, Okutsu, D, Ichikawa, H (2019). Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 study of guanfacine extended release in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Presented at 7th World Congress on ADHD, Lisbon, Portugal.Google Scholar

Jackson, CO (1971). The amphetamine inhaler: a case study of medical abuse. J Hist Med, 26, 187–196.Google Scholar

Kessler, RC, Adler, L, Barkley, R, et al. (2006). The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry, 163(4), 716–723.Google Scholar

Khan, A, Fahl Mar, K, Brown, WA (2017). Does the increasing placebo response impact outcomes of adult and pediatric ADHD clinical trials? Data from the US Food and Drug Administration 2000–2009. J Psychiatr Res, 94, 202–207.Google Scholar

Koblan, KS, Hopkins, SC, Sarma, K, et al. (2016). Assessment of human abuse potential of dasotraline compared to methylphenidate and placebo in recreational stimulant users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 159, 26–34.Google Scholar

Konstenius, M, Jayaram-Lindström, N, Guterstam, J, et al. (2014). Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and drug relapse in criminal offenders with substance dependence: a 24-week randomized placebo-controlled trial. Addiction, 109(3), 440–449.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJS (2013). Adult ADHD: Diagnostic Assessment and Treatment, 3rd ed. London: Springer.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJ, Huss, M, Asherson, P, et al. (2012). Distinguishing comorbidity and successful management of adult ADHD. J Atten Disord, 16(5 Suppl), 3–19.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJ, Michielsen, M, Kruithof, H, Bijlenga, D (2016). ADHD in old age: a review of the literature and proposal for assessment and treatment. Expert Rev Neurother, 16(12), 1371–1381.Google Scholar

Kooij, JJS, Bijlenga, D, Salerno, L, et al. (2019). Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. Eur Psychiatry, 56, 14–34.Google Scholar

Kooij, SJ, Bejerot, S, Blackwell, A, et al. (2010). European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: the European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry, 10, 67.Google Scholar

Kratochvil, CJ, Newcorm, JH, Arnold, LE, et al. (2005). Atomoxetine alone or combined with fluoxetine for treating ADHD with comorbid depressive or anxiety symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 44(9), 915–924.Google Scholar

Levin, FR, Mariani, JJ, Specker, S, et al. (2015). Extended-release mixed amphetamine salts vs placebo for comorbid adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and cocaine use disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(6), 593–602.Google Scholar

Levin, FR, Choi, CJ, Pavlicova, M, et al. (2018). How treatment improvement in ADHD and cocaine dependence are related to one another: a secondary analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 188, 135–140.Google Scholar

Lichtenstein, P, Halldner, L, Zetterqvist, J, et al. (2012). Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. N Engl J Med, 367, 2006–2014.Google Scholar

Lorvic, J, Bourgois, P, Wenger, LD, et al. (2012). Sexual pleasure and sexual risk among women who use methamphetamine: a mixed methods study. Int J Drug Policy, 23(5), 385–392.Google Scholar

Lu, Y, Sjölander, A, Cederlöf, M, et al. (2017). Association between medication use and performance on higher education entrance tests in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(8), 815–822.Google Scholar

Magon, RK, Latheesh, B, Müller, U (2015). Specialist community adult ADHD clinics in East Anglia: service evaluation and audit of NICE guideline recommendations. BJPsych Bull, 39, 36–140.Google Scholar

Maier, LJ, Liechti, ME, Herzig, F, Schaub, MP (2013). To dope or not to dope: neuroenhancement with prescription drugs and drugs of abuse among Swiss university students. PLoS One, 8(11), e77967.Google Scholar

Man, KKC, Ip, P, Chan, EW, et al. (2017). Effectiveness of pharmacological treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder on physical injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. CNS Drugs, 31, 1043–1055.Google Scholar

Martins, S, Tramontina, S, Polanczyk, G, et al. (2004). Weekend holidays during methylphenidate use in ADHD children: a randomized clinical trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 14(2), 195–206.Google Scholar

Matthies, S, Philipsen, A (2016). Comorbidity of personality disorders and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): review of recent findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 18(4), 33.Google Scholar

McArdle, A (2016). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In Currie, A, Owen, B, eds., Sports Psychiatry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 87–95.Google Scholar

McIntyre, RS, Lee, Y, Zhou, AJ, et al. (2017). The efficacy of psychostimulants in major depressive episodes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 37, 412–418.Google Scholar

Melendez-Torres, GJ, Bonell, C, Hickson, F, et al. (2016). Predictors of crystal methamphetamine use in a community-based sample of UK men who have sex with men. Int J Drug Policy, 36, 43–46.Google Scholar

Moran, LV, Ongur, D, Hsu, J, et al. (2019). Psychosis with methylphenidate or amphetamine in patients with ADHD. N Engl J Med, 380, 1128–1138.Google Scholar

Müller, U (2008). Pharmacological treatment. In Cappa, SF, Abutalebi, J, Démonet, J-F, Fletcher, P, Garrard, P, eds., Cognitive Neurology: A Clinical Textbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 475–498.Google Scholar

Müller-Sedgwick, U, Meisel, G, Nasri, M, Sedgwick-Müller, JA (2018). How fast should we titrate methylphenidate in adults with ADHD? A meta-analysis of dose titration regimes in RCTs. presented at 5th Eunethydis International Conference on ADHD, Edinburgh, Scotland.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2008). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management. Clinical guideline [CG72]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2018). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG87]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

Newcorn, JH, Stein, MA, Childress, AC, et al. (2013). Randomized, double-blind trial of guanfacine extended release in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: morning or evening administration. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52, 921–930.Google Scholar

NHS England (2016). The Five Year Forward View for Mental Health, Mental Health Taskforce. Available at: www.england.nhs.uk/mentalhealth/taskforce (last accessed 24.10.18).Google Scholar

Nigg, JT, Johnstone, JM, Musser, ED, et al. (2016). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and being overweight/obesity: new data and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev, 43, 67–79.Google Scholar

Nussbaum, NL (2012). ADHD and female specific concerns: a review of the literature and clinical implications, J Atten Disord, 16, 87–100.Google Scholar

Nutt, DJ, Fone, K, Asherson, P, et al.; British Association for Psychopharmacology (2007). Evidence-based guidelines for management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents in transition to adult services and in adults: recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 21(1), 10–41.Google Scholar

Ogundele, MO, Ayyash, HF (2018). Review of the evidence for the management of co-morbid tic disorders in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. World J Clin Pediatr, 7, 36–42.Google Scholar

Ott, R, Biller-Andorno, N (2014). Neuroenhancement among Swiss students: a comparison of users and non-users. Pharmacopsychiatry, 47, 22–28.Google Scholar

Padala, PR, Padala, KP, Lensing, SY, et al. (2018). Methylphenidate for apathy in community-dwelling older veterans with mild Alzheimer’s disease: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 175, 159–168.Google Scholar

Park, J, Choi, HW, Yum, MS, et al. (2018). Relationship between aggravation of seizures and methylphenidate treatment in subjects with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 28, 537–546.Google Scholar

Perera, B (2018). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in people with intellectual disability. Ir J Psychol Med, 35, 213–219.Google Scholar

Philipsen, A, Richter, H, Peters, J, et al. (2007). Structured group psychotherapy in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: results of an open multicentre study. J Nerv Ment Disord, 195(12), 1013–1019.Google Scholar

Philipsen, A, Limberger, MF, Lieb, K, et al. (2008). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder as a potentially aggravating factor in borderline personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 192(2), 118–123.Google Scholar

Philipsen, A, Jans, T, Graf, E, et al.; Comparison of Methylphenidate and Psychotherapy in Adult ADHD Study (COMPAS) Consortium (2015). Effects of group psychotherapy, individual counseling, methylphenidate, and placebo in the treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 72, 1199–1210.Google Scholar

POMH-UK (2015). Topic 13b re-audit report. Prescribing for ADHD in children, adolescents and adults. Prescribing Observatory for Mental Health (POMH), CCQI218 (data on file).Google Scholar

Quinn, PO (2005). Treating adolescent girls and women with ADHD: gender-specific issue. J Clin Psychol, 61(5), 579–587.Google Scholar

Rabiner, DL, Anastopoulos, AD, Costello, EJ, et al. (2009). The misuse and diversion of prescribed ADHD medications by college students. J Atten Disord, 13, 144–153.Google Scholar

Renoux, C, Shin, JY, Dell’Aniello, S, Fergusson, E, Suissa, S (2016). Prescribing trends of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications in UK primary care, 1995–2015. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 82, 858–868.Google Scholar

Reyniers, T, Hoornenborg, E, Vuylsteke, B, Wouters, K, Laga, M (2017). Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for men who have sex with men in Europe: review of evidence for a much needed prevention tool. Sex Transm Infect, 93, 363–367.Google Scholar

Rösler, M, Fischer, R, Ammer, R, Ose, C, Retz, W (2009). A randomised, placebo-controlled, 24-week, study of low-dose extended-release methylphenidate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 259(2), 120–129.Google Scholar

Roy, A, Hechtman, L, Arnold, LE, et al.; MTA Cooperative Group (2017). Childhood predictors of adult functional outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (MTA). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 56(8), 687–695.Google Scholar

Royal College of Psychiatrists (RCPsych) Psychopharmacology Committee (2017). Use of Licensed Medicines for Unlicensed Applications in Psychiatric Practice, 2nd ed. College Report CR210. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists. Available at: www.bap.org.uk/pdfs/CR210-December2017.pdf (last accessed 8.8.19).Google Scholar

Ruggiero, S, Clavenna, A, Reale, L, et al. (2014). Guanfacine for attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in pediatrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 24(10), 1578–1590.Google Scholar

Ruthirakuhan, MT, Herrmann, N, Abraham, EH, Chan, S, Lanctôt, KL (2018). Pharmacological interventions for apathy in Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD012197.Google Scholar

Sahakian, BJ, Morein-Zamir, S (2015). Pharmacological cognitive enhancement: treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders and lifestyle use by healthy people. Lancet Psychiatry, 2, 357–362.Google Scholar

Scheffer, RE (2007). Concurrent ADHD and bipolar disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 9, 415–419.Google Scholar

Scheffer, RE, Kowatch, RA, Carmody, T, Rush, AJ (2005). Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of mixed amphetamine salts for symptoms of comorbid ADHD in pediatric bipolar disorder after mood stabilization with divalproex sodium. Am J Psychiatry, 162(1), 58–64.Google Scholar

Sedgwick, JA (2018). University students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a literature review. Ir J Psychol Med, 35(3), 221–235.Google Scholar

Seixas, M, Weiss, M, Müller, U (2012). Systematic review of national and international guidelines on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Psychopharmacology, 26(6), 753–765.Google Scholar

Shanmugan, S, Epperson, CN (2014). Estrogen and the prefrontal cortex: towards a new understanding of estrogen’s effects on executive functions in the menopause transition. Hum Brain Mapp, 35(3), 847–865.Google Scholar

Singh, I, Bard, I, Jackson, J (2014). Robust resilience and substantial interest: a survey of pharmacological cognitive enhancement among university students in the UK and Ireland. PLoS One, 9(20), e105969.Google Scholar

Slade, M (2017). Implementing shared decision making in routine mental health care. World Psychiatry, 16(2), 146–153.Google Scholar

Solberg, BS, Haavik, J, Halmøy, A (2019). Health care services for adults with ADHD: patient satisfaction and the role of psycho-education. J Atten Disord, 23, 99–108.Google Scholar

Solmi, M, Fornaro, M, Toyoshima, K, et al. (2018). Systematic review and exploratory meta-analysis of the efficacy, safety, and biological effects of psychostimulants and atomoxetine in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. CNS Spectr [Epub ahead of print] doi:10.1017/S1092852918001050.Google Scholar

Spruyt, K, Gozal, D (2011). Sleep disturbances in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Rev Neurother, 11, 565–577.Google Scholar

Stein, M, Thurmond, P, Bailey, G (2014). Willingness to use HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among opiate users. AIDS Behav, 18(9), 1694–1700.Google Scholar

Stoffers, JM, Völlm, BA, Rücker, G, et al. (2012). Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (8), CD005652.Google Scholar

Sugden, C, Housden, CR, Aggarwal, R, Sahakian, BJ, Darzi, A (2012). Effect of pharmacological enhancement on the cognitive and clinical psychomotor performance of sleep-deprived doctors: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg, 255(2), 222–227.Google Scholar

Surman, CBH, Fried, R, Rhodewalt, L, Boland, H (2017). Do pharmaceuticals improve driving in individuals with ADHD? A review of the literature and evidence for clinical practice. CNS Drugs, 31, 857–866.Google Scholar

Svedlund, NE, Norring, C, Ginsberg, Y, von Hausswolff-Juhlin, Y (2018). Are treatment results for eating disorders affected by ADHD symptoms? A one-year follow-up of adult females. Eur Eat Disord Rev, 26, 337–345.Google Scholar

Swanson, JM, Arnold, LE, Molina, BSG, et al.; MTA Cooperative Group (2017). Young adult outcomes in the follow-up of the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: symptom persistence, source discrepancy, and height suppression. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 58(6), 663–678.Google Scholar

Tarrant, N, Roy, M, Deb, S, et al. (2018). The effectiveness of methylphenidate in the management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in people with intellectual disabilities: a systematic review. Res Dev Disabil, 83, 217–232.Google Scholar

Taylor, E (2017). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: overdiagnosed or diagnoses missed? Arch Dis Child, 102, 376–379.Google Scholar

Taylor, E (2019). ADHD medication in the longer term. Z Kinder Jugendpsychiatr Psychother [Epub ahead of print] doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000664.Google Scholar

Thorpy, MJ (2015). Update on therapy for narcolepsy. Curr Treat Options Neurol, 17(5), 347.Google Scholar

Tomlinson, D, Robinson, PD, Oberoi, S, et al. (2018). Pharmacologic interventions for fatigue in cancer and transplantation: a meta-analysis. Curr Oncol, 25, e152–e167.Google Scholar

Torgersen, T, Gjervan, B, Lensing, MB, Rasmussen, K (2016). Optimal management of ADHD in older adults. Neuropsychiatr DisTreat, 12, 79–87.Google Scholar

Tritsch, NX, Sabatini, BL (2012). Dopaminergic modulation of synaptic transmission in cortex and striatum. Neuron, 76(1), 33–50.Google Scholar

UK Medicines Information (2017). Which medicines should be considered for brand-name prescribing in primary care? Available at: www.sps.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/UKMi_QA_Brand-name_prescribing_Update_Nov2017.pdf (last accessed 9.8.19).Google Scholar

van Reekum, R, Links, PS (1994). N of 1 study: methylphenidate in a patient with borderline personality disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Can J Psychiatry, 39(3), 186–187.Google Scholar

Verrotti, A, Moavero, R, Panzarino, G, et al. (2018). The challenge of pharmacotherapy in children and adolescents with epilepsy-ADHD comorbidity. Clin Drug Investig, 38(1), 1–8.Google Scholar

Viktorin, A, Rydén, E, Thase, ME, et al. (2017). The risk of treatment-emergent mania with methylphenidate in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 174(4), 341–348.Google Scholar

Wilens, TE, Morrison, NR (2011). The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Curr Opin Psychiatry, 24(4), 280–285.Google Scholar

Wilens, TE, Adler, LA, Adams, J, et al. (2008). Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 47, 21–31.Google Scholar

Wilens, TE, Adler, LA, Weiss, MD, et al.; Atomoxetine ADHD/SUD Study Group (2008). Atomoxetine treatment of adults with ADHD and comorbid alcohol use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend, 96(1–2), 145–154.Google Scholar

Williamson, D, Johnston, C (2015). Gender differences in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a narrative review. Clin Psychol Rev, 40, 15–27.Google Scholar

Wilson, SJ, Nutt, DJ, Alford, C, et al. (2010). British Association for Psychopharmacology consensus statement on evidence-based treatment of insomnia, parasomnias and circadian rhythm disorders. J Psychopharmacol, 24, 1577–1601.Google Scholar

Wolraich, M, Brown, L, Brown, RT, et al. (2011). ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 128(5), 1007–1022.Google Scholar

Wood, DR, Reimherr, FW, Wender, PH, Johnson, GE (1976). Diagnosis and treatment of minimal brain dysfunction in adults: a preliminary report. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 33(12), 1453–1460.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (2011). Technical Brief 1: Patterns and consequences of the use of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS). Available at: www.wpro.who.int/hiv/documents/docs/Brief1forweb_850A.pdf (last accessed 1.8.18).Google Scholar

Aisen, P (2017). Continuing progress in Alzheimer’s disease trials. J Prev Alz Dis, 4(4), 211–212.Google Scholar

Auriacombe, S, Pere, J-J, Loria-Kanza, Y, Vellas, B (2002). Efficacy and safety of rivastigmine in patients with Alzheimer’s disease who failed to benefit from treatment with donepezil. Curr Med Res Opin, 18, 129–138. doi:10.1185/030079902125000471.Google Scholar

Banerjee, S, Hellier, J, Romeo, R, et al. (2013). Study of the use of antidepressants for depression in dementia: the HTA-SADD trial – a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of sertraline and mirtazapine. Health Technol Assess, 17, 1–166.Google Scholar

Beck, AT, Rush, A, Shaw, B, Emery, G (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar

Bickel, U, Thomsen, T, Weber, W, et al. (1991). Pharmacokinetics of galanthamine in humans and corresponding cholinesterase inhibition. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 50, 420–428.Google Scholar

Birks, J, Grimley Evans, J, Iakovidou, V, Tsolaki, M (2009). Rivastigmine for Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (2), CD001191. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001191.pub2.Google Scholar

Bolea-Alamanac, BM, Davies, SJ, Christmas, DM, et al. (2011). Cyproterone to treat aggressivity in dementia: a clinical case and systematic review. J Psychopharmacol, 25(1), 141–145.Google Scholar

Braak, H, Del Tredici, K (2015). Neuroanatomy and pathology of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol, 215, 1–162.Google Scholar

Braak, H, Ghebremedhin, E, Rüb, U, Bratzke, H, Del Tredici, K (2004). Stages in the development of Parkinson’s disease-related pathology. Cell Tissue Res, 318, 121–134.Google Scholar

Bullock, R, Connolly, C (2002). Switching cholinesterase inhibitor therapy in Alzheimer’s disease: donepezil to rivastigmine, is it worth it? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 17, 288–289.Google Scholar

Campbell, NL, Perkins, AJ, Gao, S, et al. (2017). Adherence and tolerability of Alzheimer’s disease medications: a pragmatic randomized trial. J Am Geriatr Soc, 65, 1497–1504.Google Scholar

Chen, YD, Zhang, J, Wang, Y, Yuan, JL, Hu, WL (2016). Efficacy of cholinesterase inhibitors in vascular dementia: an updated meta-analysis. Eur Neurol, 75, 132–141.Google Scholar

Chew, ML, Mulsant, BH, Pollock, BG, et al. (2008). Anticholinergic activity of 107 medications commonly used by older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc, 56, 1333–1341.Google Scholar

Collerton, D, Mosimann, UP, Perry, E (2015). The Neuroscience of Visual Hallucinations. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Corbett, A, Burns, A, Ballard, C (2014). Don’t use antipsychotics routinely to treat agitation and aggression in people with dementia. BMJ, 349, g6420.Google Scholar

Cummings, JL, Mega, M, Gray, K, et al. (1994). The Neuropsychiatric Inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology, 44, 2308–2314.Google Scholar

Cummings, JL, Geldmacher, D, Farlow, M, et al. (2013). High-dose donepezil (23 mg/day) for the treatment of moderate and severe Alzheimer’s disease: drug profile and clinical guidelines. CNS Neurosci Ther, 19, 294–301.Google Scholar

Cummings, J, Ballard, C, Tariot, P, et al. (2018). Pimavanserin: potential treatment for dementia-related psychosis. J Prev Alzheimers Dis, 5(4), 253–258.Google Scholar

Dawson, GR, Iversen, SD (1993). The effects of novel cholinesterase inhibitors and selective muscarinic receptor agonists in tests of reference and working memory. Behav Brain Res, 57, 143–153.Google Scholar

de Vasconcelos Cunha, UG, Lopes Rocha, F, Ávila de Melo, R, et al. (2007). A placebo-controlled double-blind randomized study of venlafaxine in the treatment of depression in dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 24, 36–41. doi:10.1159/000102570.Google Scholar

Devos, D, Moreau, C, Maltête, D, et al. (2014). Rivastigmine in apathetic but dementia and depression-free patients with Parkinson’s disease: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised clinical trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 85, 668–674. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-306439.Google Scholar

Drui, G, Carnicella, S, Carcenac, C, et al. (2014). Loss of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons accounts for the motivational and affective deficits in Parkinson’s disease. Mol Psychiatry, 19, 358–367. doi:10.1038/mp.2013.3.Google Scholar

Ecker, D, Unrath, A, Kassubek, J, Sabolek, M (2009). Dopamine agonists and their risk to induce psychotic episodes in Parkinson’s disease: a case-control study. BMC Neurol, 9, 23. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-9-23.Google Scholar

Emre, M, Tsolaki, M, Bonucelli, U, et al. (2010). Memantine for patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol, 9(10), 969–977.Google Scholar

Engedal, K, Davis, B, Richarz, U, et al. (2012). Two galantamine titration regimens in patients switched from donepezil. Acta Neurol Scand, 126, 37–44. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0404.2011.01594.x.Google Scholar

Fox, C, Livingston, G, Maidment, ID, et al. (2011). The impact of anticholinergic burden in Alzheimer’s dementia – the laser-AD study. Age Ageing, 40, 730–735.Google Scholar

Ghaleiha, A, Ghyasvand, M, Mohammadi, MR, et al. (2014). Galantamine efficacy and tolerability as an augmentative therapy in autistic children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Psychopharmacol, 28, 677–685.Google Scholar

Glasgow, NG, Povysheva, NV, Azofeifa, AM, Johnson, JW (2017). Memantine and ketamine differentially alter NMDA receptor desensitization. J Neurosci, 37, 9686–9704.Google Scholar

Gobburu, JVS, Tammara, V, Lesko, L, et al. (2001). Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of rivastigmine, a cholinesterase inhibitor, in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Pharmacol, 41, 1082–1090.Google Scholar

Green, AR, Oh, E, Hilson, L, Tian, J, Boyd, CM (2016). Anticholinergic burden in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc, 64, e313–e314.Google Scholar

Grossberg, GT, Manes, F, Allegri, RF, et al. (2013). The safety, tolerability, and efficacy of once-daily memantine (28 mg): a multinational, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s disease taking cholinesterase inhibitors. CNS Drugs, 27, 469–478.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Benbow, SM (1993a). Sexual problems associated with dementia: Part 1. Problems and their consequences. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 8(7), 547–551.Google Scholar

Haddad, PM, Benbow, SM (1993b). Sexual problems associated with dementia: Part 2. Aetiology, assessment and treatment. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 8(8), 631–637.Google Scholar

Herrmann, N, Mamdani, M, Lanctôt, KL (2004). Atypical antipsychotics and risk of cerebrovascular accidents. Am J Psychiatry, 161, 1113–1115. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.6.1113.Google Scholar

Hilmas, CJ, Poole, MJ, Finneran, K, Clark, MG, Williams, PT (2009). Galantamine is a novel post-exposure therapeutic against lethal VX challenge. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 240, 166–173.Google Scholar

Hinkle, JT, Perepezko, K, Bakker, C, et al. (2018). Onset and remission of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: pharmacologic and motoric markers. Mov Disord Clin Pract, 5, 31–38. doi:10.1002/mdc3.12550.Google Scholar

Holroyd, S, Currie, L, Wooten, GF (2001). Prospective study of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 70, 734–738. doi:10.1136/jnnp.70.6.734.Google Scholar

Hong, JM, Shin, DH, Lim, TS, Lee, JS, Huh, K (2012). Galantamine administration in chronic post-stroke aphasia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 83, 675–680. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2012-302268.Google Scholar

Howard, R, McShane, R, Lindesay, J, et al. (2012). Donepezil and memantine for moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med, 366, 893–903.Google Scholar

Howard, R, McShane, R, Lindesay, J, et al. (2015). Nursing home placement in the Donepezil and Memantine in Moderate to Severe Alzheimer’s Disease (DOMINO-AD) trial: secondary and post-hoc analyses. Lancet Neurol, 14, 1171–1181.Google Scholar

Huang, F, Lasseter, AC, Janssens, L, et al. (2002). Pharmacokinetic and safety assessments of galantamine and risperidone after the two drugs are administered alone and together. J Clin Pharmacol, 42, 1341–1351.Google Scholar

Irwin, DJ, Grossman, M, Weintraub, D, et al. (2017). Neuropathological and genetic correlates of survival and dementia onset in synucleinopathies: a retrospective analysis. Lancet Neurol, 16, 55–65.Google Scholar

Jang, YK, Lyoo, CH, Park, S, et al. (2018). Head to head comparison of [¹⁸F] AV-1451 and [¹⁸F] THK5351 for tau imaging in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging, 45, 432–442.Google Scholar

Jann, MW, Shirley, KL, Small, GW (2002). Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cholinesterase inhibitors. Clin Pharmacokinet, 41, 719–739.Google Scholar

Jiang, J, Jiang, H (2015). Efficacy and adverse effects of memantine treatment for Alzheimer’s disease from randomized controlled trials. Neurol Sci, 36, 1633–1641.Google Scholar

Johansson, I, Nordberg, A (1993). Pharmacokinetic studies of cholinesterase inhibitors. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl, 149, 22–25.Google Scholar

Kavirajan, H, Schneider, LS (2007). Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol, 6, 782–792. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(07)70195-3.Google Scholar

Kishi, T, Matsunaga, S, Iwata, N (2015). Memantine for the treatment of frontotemporal dementia: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 11, 2883–2885.Google Scholar

Kobayashi, H, Ohnishi, T, Nakagawa, R, Yoshizawa, K (2016). The comparative efficacy and safety of cholinesterase inhibitors in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer’s disease: a Bayesian network meta-analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 31, 892–904.Google Scholar

Larsson, V, Aarsland, D, Ballard, C, Minthon, L, Londos, E (2010). The effect of memantine on sleep behaviour in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson’s disease dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 25, 1030–1038. doi:10.1002/gps.2506.Google Scholar

Lefèvre, G, Callegari, F, Gsteiger, S, Xiong, Y (2016). Effects of renal impairment on steady-state plasma concentrations of rivastigmine: a population pharmacokinetic analysis of capsule and patch formulations in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Drugs Aging, 33, 725–736.Google Scholar

Liu, AKL, Chang, RCC, Pearce, RKB, Gentleman, SM (2015). Nucleus basalis of Meynert revisited: anatomy, history and differential involvement in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neuropathol, 129, 527–540. doi:10.1007/s00401-015-1392-5.Google Scholar

Livingston, G, Kelly, J, Lewis-Holmes, E, et al. (2014). A systematic review of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of sensory, psychological and behavioural interventions for managing agitation in older adults with dementia. Health Technol Assess, 18, 1–226, v–vi.Google Scholar

López-Valdés, HE, Clarkson, AN, Ao, Y, et al. (2014). Memantine enhances recovery from stroke. Stroke, 45, 2093–2100. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.004476.Google Scholar

Massoud, F, Desmarais, JE, Gauthier, S (2011). Switching cholinesterase inhibitors in older adults with dementia. Int Psychogeriatr, 23, 372–378. doi:10.1017/S1041610210001985.Google Scholar

Matsunaga, S, Kishi, T, Iwata, N (2015a). Memantine monotherapy for Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10(4), e0123289. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123289.Google Scholar

Matsunaga, S, Kishi, T, Iwata, N (2015b). Combination therapy with cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine for Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 18, pyu115. doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyu115.Google Scholar

Meltzer, HY, Mills, R, Revell, S, et al. (2010). Pimavanserin, a serotonin 2 A receptor inverse agonist, for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 881–892.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2018a). Decision aid: antipsychotic medicines for treating agitation, aggression and distress in people living with dementia. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng97/resources/antipsychotic-medicines-for-treating-agitation-aggression-and-distress-in-people-living-with-dementia-patient-decision-aid-pdf-4852697005 (last accessed 26.1.19).Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2018b). Dementia: assessment, management and support for people living with dementia and their carers. NICE guideline [NG97]. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

Nelson, JC, Devanand, DP (2011). A systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled antidepressant studies in people with depression and dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc, 59, 577–585. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03355.x.Google Scholar

Noetzli, M, Guidi, M, Ebbing, K, et al. (2013). Population pharmacokinetic study of memantine: effects of clinical and genetic factors. Clin Pharmacokinet, 52, 211–223.Google Scholar

Ohnishi, A, Mihara, M, Kamakura, H, et al. (1993). Comparison of the pharmacokinetics of E2020, a new compound for Alzheimer’s disease, in healthy young and elderly subjects. J Clin Pharmacol, 33, 1086–1091.Google Scholar

Ohta, Y, Darwish, M, Hishikawa, N, et al. (2017). Therapeutic effects of drug switching between acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Geriatr Gerontol Int, 17, 1843–1848. doi:10.1111/ggi.12971.Google Scholar

Pagonabarraga, J, Kulisevsky, J, Strafella, AP, Krack, P (2015). Apathy in Parkinson’s disease: clinical features, neural substrates, diagnosis, and treatment. Lancet Neurology, 14, 518–531. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00019-8.Google Scholar

Pasina, L, Djade, CD, Lucca, U, et al. (2013). Association of anticholinergic burden with cognitive and functional status in a cohort of hospitalized elderly: comparison of the anticholinergic cognitive burden scale and anticholinergic risk scale: results from the REPOSI study. Drugs Aging, 30, 103–112.Google Scholar

Pereira, EFR, Aracava, Y, Alkondon, M, et al. (2010). Molecular and cellular actions of galantamine: clinical implications for treatment of organophosphorus poisoning. J Mol Neurosci, 40, 196–203.Google Scholar

Periclou, A, Ventura, D, Rao, N, Abramowitz, W (2006). Pharmacokinetic study of memantine in healthy and renally impaired subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 79, 134–143.Google Scholar

Perry, EK, Curtis, M, Dick, DJ, et al. (1985). Cholinergic correlates of cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease: comparisons with Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 48, 413–421.Google Scholar

Piotrovsky, V, Van Peer, A, Van Osselaer, N, Armstrong, M, Aerssens, J (2003). Galantamine population pharmacokinetics in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: modeling and simulations. J Clin Pharmacol, 43, 514–523.Google Scholar

Polinsky, RJ (1998). Clinical pharmacology of rivastigmine: a new-generation acetylcholinesterase inhibitor for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Ther, 20, 634–647.Google Scholar

Prince, M, Wimo, A, Guerchet, M, et al. (2015). World Alzheimer Report 2015 – The Global Impact of Dementia: An Analysis of Prevalence, Incidence, Cost and Trends. London: Alzheimer’s Disease International. Available at: www.alz.co.uk/research/WorldAlzheimerReport2015.pdf (last accessed 10.8.19).Google Scholar

Risacher, SL, McDonald, BC, Tallman, EF, et al. (2016). Association between anticholinergic medication use and cognition, brain metabolism, and brain atrophy in cognitively normal older adults. JAMA Neurol, 73, 721–732.Google Scholar

Ruxton, K, Woodman, RJ, Mangoni, AA (2015). Drugs with anticholinergic effects and cognitive impairment, falls and all-cause mortality in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 80, 209–220.Google Scholar

Sabbagh, M, Hans, S, Kim, S, et al. (2016). Clinical recommendations for the use of donepezil 23 mg in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s disease in the Asia-Pacific region. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra, 6, 382–395.Google Scholar

Salahudeen, MS, Duffull, SB, Nishtala, PS (2015). Anticholinergic burden quantified by anticholinergic risk scales and adverse outcomes in older people: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr, 15, 31.Google Scholar

Sasaki, S, Horie, Y (2014). The effects of an uninterrupted switch from donepezil to galantamine without dose titration on behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in Alzheimer’s disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Dis Extra, 4, 131–139. doi:10.1159/000362871.Google Scholar

Schmidt, R, Hofer, E, Bouwman, FH, et al. (2015). EFNS-ENS/EAN Guideline on concomitant use of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in moderate to severe Alzheimer’s disease. Eur J Neurol, 22, 889–898.Google Scholar

Schneider-Thoma, J, Efthimiou, O, Huhn, M, et al. (2018). Second-generation antipsychotic drugs and short-term mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomised controlled trials. Lancet Psychiatry, 5, 653–663.Google Scholar

Serfaty, M, Kennell-Webb, S, Warner, J, Blizard, R, Raven, P (2002). Double blind randomised placebo controlled trial of low dose melatonin for sleep disorders in dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 17, 1120–1127.Google Scholar

Sharp, SI, Francis, PT, Elliot, MSJ, et al. (2009). Choline acetyltransferase activity in vascular dementia and stroke. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord, 28, 233–238. doi:10.1159/000239235.Google Scholar

Sullivan, SC, Richards, KC (2004). Predictors or circadian sleep-wake rhythm maintenance in elders with dementia. Aging Ment Health, 8, 143–152. doi:10.1080/13607860410001649608.Google Scholar

Tariot, PN, Farlow, MR, Grossberg, GT, et al. (2004). Memantine treatment in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer disease already receiving donepezil. JAMA, 291, 317–324.Google Scholar

Thobois, S, Lhommée, E, Klinger, H, et al. (2013). Parkinsonian apathy responds to dopaminergic stimulation of D2/D3 receptors with piribedil. Brain, 136, 1568–1577.Google Scholar

Trotman, M, Vermehren, P, Gibson, CL, Fern, R (2015). The dichotomy of memantine treatment for ischemic stroke: dose-dependent protective and detrimental effects. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 35, 230–239. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2014.188.Google Scholar

van Gool, WA, van de Beek, D, Eikelenboom, P (2010). Systemic infection and delirium: when cytokines and acetylcholine collide. Lancet, 375(9716), 773–775. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61158-2.Google Scholar

Van Leeuwen, E, Petrovic, M, Azermai, M, et al. (2018). Withdrawal versus continuation of long-term antipsychotic drug use for behavioural and psychological symptoms in older people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD007726.Google Scholar

Vingtdeux, V, Dreses-Werringloer, U, Zhao, H, Davies, P, Marambaud, P (2008). Therapeutic potential of resveratrol in Alzheimer’s disease. BMC Neurosci, 9, S6.Google Scholar

Wang, J, Yu, JT, Wang, HF, et al. (2015). Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 86, 101–109.Google Scholar

Weintraub, D, Chiang, C, Kim, HM, et al. (2016). Association of antipsychotic use with mortality risk in patients with Parkinson disease. JAMA Neurol, 73, 535–541. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0031.Google Scholar

Wesnes, K, Aarsland, D, Ballard, C, Londos, E (2014). Memantine improves attention and episodic memory in Parkinson’s disease dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry, 30(1), 46–54.Google Scholar

Zhang, L-J, Sha, X-Y (2007). Pharmacokinetics and bioequivalence studies of galantamine hydrobromide dispersible tablet in healthy male Chinese volunteers. Drug Dev Ind Pharm, 33, 335–340.Google Scholar

Zhao, Q, Janssens, L, Verhaeghe, T, Brashear, HR, Truyen, L (2005). Pharmacokinetics of extended-release and immediate-release formulations of galantamine at steady state in healthy volunteers. Curr Med Res Opin, 21, 1547–1554.Google Scholar

Zhao, QF, Tan, L, Wang, HF, et al. (2016). The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord, 190, 264–271.Google Scholar

Agabio, R, Sinclair, J, Addolorato, G, et al. (2018). Baclofen for the treatment of alcohol use disorder: the Cagliari Statement. Lancet Psychiatry, 5, 957–960.Google Scholar

Amato, L, Minozzi, S, Davoli, M (2011). Efficacy and safety of pharmacological interventions for the treatment of the Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (6), CD008537.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

Anthenelli, RM, Benowitz, NL, West, R, et al. (2016). Neuropsychiatric safety and efficacy of varenicline, bupropion, and nicotine patch in smokers with and without psychiatric disorders (EAGLES): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Lancet, 387, 2507–2520.Google Scholar

Bakker, A, Streel, E (2016). Benzodiazepine maintenance in opiate substitution treatment: good or bad? A retrospective primary care case-note review. J Psychopharmacol, 31, 62–66.Google Scholar

Beck, T, Haasen, C, Verthein, U, et al. (2014). Maintenance treatment for opioid dependence with slow-release oral morphine: a randomized cross-over, non-inferiority study versus methadone. Addiction, 109, 617–626.Google Scholar

Bordia, T, Hrachova, M, Chin, M, McIntosh, JM, Quik, M (2012). Varenicline is a potent partial agonist at α6β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in rat and monkey striatum. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 342, 327–334.Google Scholar

Burns, L, Gisev, N, Larney, S, et al. (2015). A longitudinal comparison of retention in buprenorphine and methadone treatment for opioid dependence in New South Wales, Australia. Addiction, 110, 646–655.Google Scholar

Cahill, K, Lindson-Hawley, N, Thomas, KH, Fanshawe, TR, Lancaster, T (2016). Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD006103.Google Scholar

Chick, J (1999). Safety issues concerning the use of disulfiram in treating alcohol dependence. Drug Saf, 20, 427–435.Google Scholar

Chick, J, Nutt, DJ (2012). Substitution therapy for alcoholism: time for a reappraisal? J Psychopharmacol, 26, 205–212.Google Scholar

Chick, J, Gough, K, Falkowski, W, et al. (1992). Disulfiram treatment of alcoholism. Br J Psychiatry, 161, 84–89.Google Scholar

Clinical Guidelines on Drug Misuse and Dependence Update 2017 Independent Expert Working Group (2017). Drug misuse and dependence: UK guidelines on clinical management. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar

Coe, JW, Brooks, PR, Vetelino, MG, et al. (2005). Varenicline: an α4β2 nicotinic receptor partial agonist for smoking cessation. J Med Chem, 48, 3474–3477.Google Scholar

Colasanti, A, Rabiner, E, Lingford-Hughes, A, Nutt, D (2011). Opioids and anxiety. J Psychopharmacol, 25, 1415–1433.Google Scholar

Coleman, T, Chamberlain, C, Davey, M-A, Cooper, SE, Leonardi-Bee, J (2015). Pharmacological interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (12), CD010078.Google Scholar

Darke, S, Ross, J, Mills, K, et al. (2010). Benzodiazepine use among heroin users: baseline use, current use and clinical outcome. Drug Alcohol Rev, 29, 250–255.Google Scholar

Darker, CD, Sweeney, BP, Barry, JM, Farrell, MF, Donnelly-Swift, E (2015). Psychosocial interventions for benzodiazepine harmful use, abuse or dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD009652.Google Scholar

de Beaurepaire, R, Sinclair, JMA, Heydtmann, M, et al. (2018). The use of baclofen as a treatment for alcohol use disorder: a clinical practice perspective. Front Psychiatry, 9, 708.Google Scholar

Degenhardt, L, Charlson, F, Mathers, B, et al. (2014a). The global epidemiology and burden of opioid dependence: results from the global burden of disease 2010 study. Addiction, 109, 1320–1333.Google Scholar

Degenhardt, L, Larney, S, Randall, D, Burns, L, Hall, W (2014b). Causes of death in a cohort treated for opioid dependence between 1985 and 2005. Addiction, 109, 90–99.Google Scholar

Di Ciano, P, Guranda, M, Lagzdins, D, et al. (2016). Varenicline-induced elevation of dopamine in smokers: a preliminary [¹¹C]-(+)-PHNO PET study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 1513–1520.Google Scholar

Donoghue, K, Elzerbi, C, Saunders, R, et al. (2015). The efficacy of acamprosate and naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence, Europe versus the rest of the world: a meta‐analysis. Addiction, 110, 920–930.Google Scholar

Ebbert, JO, Hughes, JR, West, RJ, et al. (2015). Effect of varenicline on smoking cessation through smoking reduction: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 313, 687–694.Google Scholar

Elholm, B, Larsen, K, Hornnes, N, Zierau, F, Becker, U (2011). Alcohol withdrawal syndrome: symptom-triggered versus fixed-schedule treatment in an outpatient setting. Alcohol Alcohol, 46, 318–323.Google Scholar

European Medicines Agency (2017). Alcover (granules in sachet) and associated names. London: European Medicines Agency.Google Scholar

Garcia-Borreguero, D, Bronisch, T, Apelt, S, Yassouridis, A, Emrich, HM (1991). Treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms with carbamazepine. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 241, 145–150.Google Scholar

Goodwin, G, Haddad, P, Ferrier, I, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 495–553.Google Scholar

Gossop, M (1990). The development of a short opiate withdrawal scale (SOWS). Addict Behav, 15, 487–490.Google Scholar

Gowing, L, Farrell, M, Ali, R, White, JM (2016). Alpha2-adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD002024.Google Scholar

Haber, P, Lintzeris, N, Proude, E, Lopatko, O (2009). Guidelines for the Treatment of Alcohol Problems. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.Google Scholar

Hajak, G, Müller, WE, Wittchen, HU, Pittrow, D, Kirch, W (2003). Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data. Addiction, 98, 1371–1378.Google Scholar

Harper, CG, Giles, M, Finlay-Jones, R (1986). Clinical signs in the Wernicke-Korsakoff complex: a retrospective analysis of 131 cases diagnosed at necropsy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 49, 341–345.Google Scholar

Hartmann-Boyce, J, McRobbie, H, Bullen, C, et al. (2016). Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (9), CD010216.Google Scholar

Hartmann-Boyce, J, Chepkin, SC, Ye, W, Bullen, C, Lancaster, T (2018). Nicotine replacement therapy versus control for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (5), CD000146.Google Scholar

Hasin, DS, Stinson, FS, Ogburn, E, Grant, BF (2007). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 64, 830–842.Google Scholar

Hay, G, Rael dos Santos, A, Swithenbank, Z (2017). Estimates of the Prevalence of Opiate Use and/or Crack Cocaine Use, 2014/15: Sweep 11 Report. Public Health England. Liverpool: Public Health Institute, John Moores University.Google Scholar

Hser, Y-I, Evans, E, Huang, D, et al. (2016). Long-term outcomes after randomization to buprenorphine/naloxone versus methadone in a multi-site trial. Addiction, 111, 695–705.Google Scholar

Hughes, JR, Stead, LF, Hartmann-Boyce, J, Cahill, K, Lancaster, T (2014). Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (1), CD000031.Google Scholar

Jones, HE, Kaltenbach, K, Heil, SH, et al. (2010). Neonatal abstinence syndrome after methadone or buprenorphine exposure. New Engl J Med, 363, 2320–2331.Google Scholar

Kalk, NJ, Lingford-Hughes, AR (2014). The clinical pharmacology of acamprosate. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 77, 315–323.Google Scholar

Koob, GF, Le Moal, M (2006). Nicotine. In Koob, GF, Le Moal, M, eds., Neurobiology of Addiction. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar

Kosten, TR, George, TP (2002). The neurobiology of opioid dependence: implications for treatment. Sci Pract Perspect, 1, 13–20.Google Scholar

Kotz, D, Viechtbauer, W, Simpson, C, et al. (2015). Cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric risks of varenicline: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Respir Med, 3, 761–768.Google Scholar

Larney, S, Gowing, L, Mattick, RP, et al. (2014). A systematic review and meta-analysis of naltrexone implants for the treatment of opioid dependence. Drug Alcohol Rev, 33, 115–128.Google Scholar

Lasser, K, Boyd, J, Woolhandler, S, et al. (2000). Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. JAMA, 284, 2606–2610.Google Scholar

Law, FD, Diaper, AM, Melichar, JK, et al. (2017). Buprenorphine/naloxone versus methadone and lofexidine in community stabilisation and detoxification: a randomised controlled trial of low dose short-term opiate-dependent individuals. J Psychopharamcol, 31, 1046–1055.Google Scholar

Lejoyeux, M, Lehert, P (2011). Alcohol-use disorders and depression: results from individual patient data meta-analysis of the acamprosate-controlled studies. Alcohol Alcohol, 46, 61–67.Google Scholar

Liebrenz, M, Boesch, L, Stohler, R, Caflisch, C (2010). Agonist substitution – a treatment alternative for high-dose benzodiazepine-dependent patients? Addiction, 105, 1870–1874.Google Scholar

Lingford-Hughes, AR, Welch, S, Peters, L, Nutt, DJ (2012). BAP updated guidelines: evidence-based guidelines for the pharmacological management of substance abuse, harmful use, addiction and comorbidity: recommendations from BAP. J Psychopharmacol, 26, 899–952.Google Scholar

Lishman, W (1998). Organic Psychiatry: The Psychological Consequences of Cerebral Disorder. Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 315–323.Google Scholar

Mann, K, Torup, L, Sørensen, P, et al. (2016). Nalmefene for the management of alcohol dependence: review on its pharmacology, mechanism of action and meta-analysis on its clinical efficacy. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 26, 1941–1949.Google Scholar

Marsch, LA, Moore, SK, Borodovsky, JT, et al. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of buprenorphine taper duration among opioid-dependent adolescents and young adults. Addiction, 111, 1406–1415.Google Scholar

Mattick, RP, Breen, C, Kimber, J, Davoli, M (2009). Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD002209.Google Scholar

Mattick, RP, Breen, C, Kimber, J, Davoli, M (2014). Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (2), CD002207.Google Scholar

McNeill, A, Brose, LS, Calder, R, Bauld, L, Robson, D (2018). Evidence review of e-cigarettes and heated tobacco products. A report commissioned by Public Health England. London: Public Health England.Google Scholar

MHRA (2006). Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance, Vol. 31. London: Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.Google Scholar

Minozzi, S, Amato, L, Vecchi, S, Davoli, M (2010). Anticonvulsants for alcohol withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (3), CD005064.Google Scholar

Minozzi, S, Amato, L, Vecchi, S, et al. (2011). Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (4), CD001333.Google Scholar

Montgomery, AJ, Lingford‐Hughes, AR, Egerton, A, Nutt, DJ, Grasby, PM (2007). The effect of nicotine on striatal dopamine release in man: a [11C] raclopride PET study. Synapse, 61, 637–645.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2007a). Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence. Technology appraisal guidance [TA114]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2007b). Drug misuse: opiate detoxification. Clinical guideline [CG52]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2007c). Naltrexone for the management of opioid dependence. Technology appraisal guidance [TA115]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2010a). Alcohol-use disorders: diagnosis and management of physical complications. Clinical guideline [CG100]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2010b). Smoking: stopping in pregnancy and after childbirth. Public health guideline [PH26]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2011). Alcohol-use disorders: diagnosis, assessment and management of harmful drinking and alcohol dependence. Clinical guideline [CG115]. Manchester: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence.Google Scholar

Nesvåg, R, Knudsen, GP, Bakken, IJ, et al. (2015). Substance use disorders in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depressive illness: a registry-based study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 50, 1267–1276.Google Scholar

Nielsen, S, Dietze, P, Lee, N, Dunlop, A, Taylor, D (2007). Concurrent buprenorphine and benzodiazepines use and self-reported opioid toxicity in opioid substitution treatment. Addiction, 102, 616–622.Google Scholar

Nolan, S, Dias Lima, V, Fairbairn, N, et al. (2014). The impact of methadone maintenance therapy on hepatitis C incidence among illicit drug users. Addiction, 109, 2053–2059.Google Scholar

Nosyk, B, Sun, H, Evans, E, et al. (2012). Defining dosing pattern characteristics of successful tapers following methadone maintenance treatment: results from a population-based retrospective cohort study. Addiction, 107, 1621–1629.Google Scholar

Novel Psychoactive Treatment UK Network (NEPTUNE) (2015). Guidance on the management of acute and chronic harms of club drugs and novel psychoactive substances. (online). London. (last accessed 19.2.18).Google Scholar

Nutt, DJ, Lingford-Hughes, A, Chick, J (2012). Through a glass darkly: can we improve clarity about mechanism and aims of medications in drug and alcohol treatments? J Psychopharmacol, 26, 199–204.Google Scholar

Nutt, DJ, Lingford-Hughes, A, Erritzoe, D, Stokes, P (2015). The dopamine theory of addiction: 40 years of highs and lows. Nat Rev Neurosci, 16, 305–312.Google Scholar

Office for National Statistics (2017a). Deaths related to drug poisoning in England and Wales: 2016 registrations. Statistical Bulletin. London: Office for National Statistics.Google Scholar

Office for National Statistics (2017b). Drug misuse: findings from the 2016/17 CSEW. London: Home Office.Google Scholar

Pathan, H, Williams, J (2012). Basic opioid pharmacology: an update. Br J Pain, 6, 11–16.Google Scholar

Petrakis, IL, Poling, J, Levinson, C, et al. (2005). Naltrexone and disulfiram in patients with alcohol dependence and comorbid psychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry, 57, 1128–1137.Google Scholar

Pierce, M, Bird, SM, Hickman, M, et al. (2016). Impact of treatment for opioid dependence on fatal drug-related poisoning: a national cohort study in England. Addiction, 111, 298–308.Google Scholar

Public Health England (2016). Shooting up: infections among people who injected drugs in the UK, 2015. An update: November 2016. London: Public Health England.Google Scholar

Public Health England (2017a). Take-home naloxone for opioid overdose in people who use drugs. London: Public Health England.Google Scholar

Public Health England (2017b). Adult substance misuse statistics from the National Drug Treatment Monitoring System (NDTMS). London: Public Health England.Google Scholar

Public Health England (2018). Adult substance misuse statistics from the National Drug Treatment Monitoring System (NDTMS). London: Public Health England.Google Scholar

Quelch, DR, Mick, I, McGonigle, J, et al. (2017). Nalmefene reduces reward anticipation in alcohol dependence: an experimental functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry, 81, 941–948.Google Scholar

Rehm, J, Shield, K, Gmel, G, Rehm, M, Frick, U (2013). Modeling the impact of alcohol dependence on mortality burden and the effect of available treatment interventions in the European Union. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 23, 89–97.Google Scholar

Reitsma, M (2017). Smoking prevalence and attributable disease burden in 195 countries and territories, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet, 389, 1885–1906.Google Scholar

Robertson, JR, Raab, GM, Bruce, M, et al. (2006). Addressing the efficacy of dihydrocodeine versus methadone as an alternative maintenance treatment for opiate dependence: a randomized controlled trial. Addiction, 101, 1752–1759.Google Scholar

Rösner, S, Hackl‐Herrwerth, A, Leucht, S, et al. (2010). Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (12), CD001867.Google Scholar

Ross, J, Ross, J, Teesson, M, et al. (2005). The characteristics of heroin users entering treatment: findings from the Australian treatment outcome study (ATOS). Drug Alcohol Rev, 24, 411–418.Google Scholar

Saunders, JB, Aasland, OG, Amundsen, A, Grant, M (1993). Alcohol consumption and related problems among primary health care patients: WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption – I. Addiction, 88, 349–362.Google Scholar

Sechi, G, Serra, A (2007). Wernicke’s encephalopathy: new clinical settings and recent advances in diagnosis and management. Lancet Neurol, 6, 442–455.Google Scholar

Senbanjo, R, Wolff, K, Marshall, J (2007). Excessive alcohol consumption is associated with reduced quality of life among methadone patients. Addiction, 102, 257–263.Google Scholar

Sinclair, JMA, Latifi, AH, Latifi, AW (2008). Co-morbid substance misuse in psychiatric inpatients: prevalence and association with length of inpatient stay. J Psychopharmacol, 22, 92–98.Google Scholar

Sinclair, JM, Chambers, SE, Shiles, CJ, Baldwin, DS (2016). Safety and tolerability of pharmacological treatment of alcohol dependence: comprehensive review of evidence. Drug Saf, 39, 627–645.Google Scholar

Sordo, L, Barrio, G, Bravo, MJ, et al. (2017). Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ, 357, j1550.Google Scholar

Stapleton, J, West, R, Hajek, P, et al. (2013). Randomized trial of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), bupropion and NRT plus bupropion for smoking cessation: effectiveness in clinical practice. Addiction, 108, 2193–2201.Google Scholar

Sterling, LH, Windle, SB, Filion, KB, Touma, L, Eisenberg, MJ (2016). Varenicline and adverse cardiovascular events: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Heart Assoc, 5, e002849.Google Scholar

Stockwell, T, Murphy, D, Hodgson, R (1983). The severity of alcohol dependence questionnaire: its use, reliability and validity. Br J Addict, 78, 145–155.Google Scholar

Strang, J, Groshkova, T, Uchtenhagen, A, et al. (2015). Heroin on trial: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials of diamorphine-prescribing as treatment for refractory heroin addiction. Br J Psychiatry, 207, 5–14.Google Scholar

Sullivan, JT, Sykora, K, Schneiderman, J, Naranjo, CA, Sellers, EM (1989). Assessment of alcohol withdrawal: the revised Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol scale (CIWA-Ar). Br J Addict, 84, 1353–1357.Google Scholar

Sun, EC, Dixit, A, Humphreys, K, et al. (2017). Association between concurrent use of prescription opioids and benzodiazepines and overdose: retrospective analysis. BMJ, 356, j760.Google Scholar

Sweizer, E, Rickets, K, Case, WG, Greenblatt, DJ (1991). Carbamazepine treatment in patients discontinuing long-term benzodiazepine therapy. Effects on withdrawal severity and outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 48, 448–452.Google Scholar

Swift, RM (2013). Naltrexone and nalmefene: any meaningful difference? Biol Psychiatry, 73, 700–701.Google Scholar

Toftdahl, NG, Nordentoft, M, Hjorthøj, C (2016). Prevalence of substance use disorders in psychiatric patients: a nationwide Danish population-based study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 51, 129–140.Google Scholar

Ulrichsen, J, Nielsen, MK, Ulrichsen, M (2010). Disulfiram in severe alcoholism – an open controlled study. Nord J Psychiatry, 64, 356–362.Google Scholar

Umhau, JC, Momenan, R, Schwandt, ML, et al. (2010). Effect of acamprosate on magnetic resonance spectroscopy measures of central glutamate in detoxified alcohol-dependent individuals: a randomized controlled experimental medicine study. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 67, 1069–1077.Google Scholar

Victorri-Vigneau, C, Dailly, E, Veyrac, G, Jolliet, P (2007). Evidence of zolpidem abuse and dependence: results of the French Centre for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence (CEIP) network survey. Br J Clin Pharmacol, 64, 198–209.Google Scholar

Weaver, T, Madden, P, Charles, V, et al. (2003). Comorbidity of substance misuse and mental illness in community mental health and substance misuse services. Br J Psychiatry, 183, 304–313.Google Scholar

Wesson, DR, Ling, W (2003). The Clinical Opiate Withdrawal Scale (COWS). J Psychoactive Drugs, 35, 253–259.Google Scholar

Wilde, MI, Wagstaff, AJ (1997). Acamprosate. Drugs, 53, 1038–1053.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (1992). ICD-10: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar

World Health Organization (2014). Global status report on alcohol and health 2014. Available at: www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/en/ (last accessed 11.8.19).Google Scholar

Aaronson, ST, Carpenter, LL, Conway, CR, et al. (2012). Vagus nerve stimulation therapy randomized to different amounts of electrical charge for treatment-resistant depression: acute and chronic effects. Brain Stimul, 6, 631–640.Google Scholar

Aaronson, ST, Sears, P, Ruvuna, F, et al. (2017). A 5-year observational study of patients with treatment-resistant depression treated with vagus nerve stimulation or treatment as usual: comparison of response, remission, and suicidality. Am J Psychiatry, 174, 640–648.Google Scholar

Abelson, JL, Curtis, GC, Sagher, O, et al. (2005). Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 57, 510–516.Google Scholar

Adderley, DJ, Hamilton, M (1953). Use of succinylcholine in ECT. BMJ, 1, 195–197.Google Scholar

Aleman, A, Sommer, IE, Kahn, RS (2007). Efficacy of slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of resistant auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry, 68, 416–421.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2002). Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Bipolar Disorder, 2nd ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar

American Psychiatric Association (2010). Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890423387.654001 (last accessed 31.8.19).Google Scholar

Arfai, E, Theano, G, Montagu, JD, Robin, AA (1970). A controlled study of polarization in depression. Br J Psychiatry, 116, 433–434.Google Scholar

Baeken, C, De Raedt, R (2011). Neurobiological mechanisms of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the underlying neuro circuitry in unipolar depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 13, 139–145.Google Scholar

Bailey, P, Bremer, F (1938). A sensory cortical representation of the vagus nerve (with a note on the effects of low blood pressure on the cortical electrogram). J Neurophysiol, 1, 405–412.Google Scholar

Bajbouj, M, Merkl, A, Schlaepfer, TE, et al. (2010). Two-year outcome of vagus nerve stimulation in treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 30, 273–281.Google Scholar

Barker, AT, Jalinous, R, Freeston, IL (1985). Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet, 325, 1106–1107. http://dx.doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(85)92413-4.Google Scholar

Ben-Menachem, E, Manon-Espaillat, R, Ristanovic, R, et al. (1994). Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment of partial seizures: 1. A controlled study of effect on seizures. Epilepsia, 35, 616–626.Google Scholar

Benbow, SM, White, J (2013). Safe ECT practice in people with a physical illness. In Waite, J, Easton, A, eds., The ECT Handbook, 3rd ed. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists, pp. 184–190.Google Scholar

Berlim, MT, Van den Eynde, F, Daskalakis, ZJ (2013). Efficacy and acceptability of high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) versus electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Depress Anxiety, 30, 614–623.Google Scholar

Braga, RJ, Petrides, G (2007). Somatic therapies for treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders. Braz J Pschiatry, 29(Suppl 2), S77–S84.Google Scholar

Brakemeier, EL, Merkl, A, Wilbertz, G, et al. (2014). Cognitive-behavioral therapy as continuation treatment to sustain response after electroconvulsive therapy in depression: a randomized controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry, 76, 194–202.Google Scholar

Brunoni, AR, Moffa, AH, Fregni, F, et al. (2016). Transcranial direct current stimulation for acute major depressive episodes: meta-analysis of individual patient data. Br J Psychiatry, 208, 522–531.Google Scholar

Brus, O, Nordanskog, P, Båve, U, et al. (2017). Subjective memory immediately following electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT, 33, 96–103.Google Scholar

Buley, N, Copland, E, Hodge, S (2017). ECT Minimum Dataset 2016–17: Activity Data Report – England, Wales, Northern Ireland & Republic of Ireland. London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Burke, MJ, Husain, MM (2006). Concomitant use of vagus nerve stimulation and electroconvulsive therapy for treatment-resistant depression. J ECT, 22, 218–222.Google Scholar

Chervyakov, AV, Chernyavsky, AY, Sinitsyn, DO, Piradov, MA (2015). Possible mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci, 9, 303.Google Scholar

Chiken, S, Nambu, A (2016). Mechanism of deep brain stimulation: inhibition, excitation, or disruption? Neuroscientist, 22, 313–322.Google Scholar

Christmas, D, Steele, JD, Tolomeo, S, Eljamel, MS, Matthews, K (2013). Vagus nerve stimulation for chronic major depressive disorder: 12-month outcomes in highly treatment-refractory patients. J Affect Disord, 150, 1221–1225.Google Scholar

Cleare, A, Pariante, CM, Young, AH, et al. (2015). Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2008 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol, 29, 459–525.Google Scholar

de Vreede, IM, Burger, H, van Vliet, IM (2005). Prediction of response to ECT with routinely collected data in major depression. J Affect Disord, 86, 323–327.Google Scholar

DeGiorgio, C, Heck, C, Bunch, S, et al. (2005). Vagus nerve stimulation for epilepsy: randomized comparison of three stimulation paradigms. Neurology, 65, 317–319.Google Scholar

Deng, ZD, Hardesty, DE, Lisanby, SH, Peterchev, AV (2010). Electroconvulsive therapy in the presence of deep brain stimulation implants: electric field effects. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE 2010, 2049–2052.Google Scholar

Denys, D, Mantione, M, Figee, M, et al. (2010). Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 67, 1061–1068.Google Scholar

Dlabac-de Lange, JJ, Bais, L, van Es, FD, et al. (2015). Efficacy of bilateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for negative symptoms of schizophrenia: results of a multicenter double-blind randomized controlled trial. Psychol Med, 45, 1263–1275.Google Scholar

Dollfus, S, Lecardeur, L, Morello, R, Etard, O (2016). Placebo response in repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation trials of treatment of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull, 42, 301–308.Google Scholar

Enomoto, S, Shimizu, K, Nibuya, M, et al. (2017). Activated brain-derived neurotrophic factor/TrkB signaling in rat dorsal and ventral hippocampi following 10-day electroconvulsive seizure treatment. Neurosci Lett, 660, 45–50.Google Scholar

Erickson, JM, Carty, J (2015). Safe and effective electroconvulsive therapy using multiple parameters over 5 years in a patient with deep brain stimulator. J ECT, 31, 278–279.Google Scholar

EUnetHTA (2017). Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant Major Depression. Project ID: WP4-ACB-CA-5. Diemen: European Network for Health Technology Assessment.Google Scholar

FDA (2011). FDA Executive Summary. Prepared for the January 27–28, 2011 meeting of the Neurological Devices Panel: Meeting to Discuss the Classification of Electroconvulsive Therapy Devices (ECT). Silver Spring, MD: US Food and Drug Administration.Google Scholar

Fox, MD, Buckner, RL, White, MP, Greicius, MD, Pascual-Leone, A (2012). Efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation targets for depression is related to intrinsic functional connectivity with the subgenual cingulate. Biol Psychiatry, 72, 595–603.Google Scholar

Fraser, LM, O’Carroll, RE, Ebmeier, KP (2008). The effect of electroconvulsive therapy on autobiographical memory: a systematic review. J ECT, 24, 10–17.Google Scholar

Frye, RE, Rotenberg, A, Ousley, M, Pascual-Leone, A (2008). Transcranial magnetic stimulation in child neurology: current and future directions. J Child Neurol, 23, 79–96.Google Scholar

Gbyl, K, Videbech, P (2018). Electroconvulsive therapy increases brain volume in major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 138, 180–195.Google Scholar

George, MS, Rush, AJ, Marangell, LB, et al. (2005). A one-year comparison of vagus nerve stimulation with treatment as usual for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry, 58, 364–373.Google Scholar

Goodman, WK, Foote, KD, Greenberg, BD, et al. (2010). Deep brain stimulation for intractable obsessive compulsive disorder: pilot study using a blinded, staggered-onset design. Biol Psychiatry, 67, 535–542.Google Scholar

Goodwin, GM, Haddad, PM, Ferrier, IN, et al. (2016). Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: revised third edition recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol, 30, 495–553.Google Scholar

Goyal, N, Nizamie, SH, Desarkar, P (2007). Efficacy of adjuvant high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia: preliminary results of a double-blind sham-controlled study. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 19, 464–467.Google Scholar

Gupta, N, Avasthi, A, Kulhara, P (2000). Clinical variables as predictors of response to electroconvulsive therapy in endogenous depression. Indian J Psychiatry, 42, 60–65.Google Scholar

Hawkins, JM, Archer, KJ, Strakowski, SM, Keck, PE (1995). Somatic treatment of catatonia. Int J Psychiatry Med, 25, 345–369.Google Scholar

Hazari, H, Christmas, D, Matthews, K (2013). The clinical utility of different quantitative methods for measuring treatment resistance in major depression. J Affect Disord, 150, 231–236.Google Scholar

Health Quality Ontario (2016). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser, 16, 1–66.Google Scholar

Hein, E, Nowak, M, Kiess, O, et al. (2013). Auricular transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in depressed patients: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 120, 821–827.Google Scholar

Hızlı Sayar, G, Ozten, E, Tufan, E, et al. (2014). Transcranial magnetic stimulation during pregnancy. Arch Womens Ment Health, 17, 311–315.Google Scholar

Ho, K-A, Taylor, JL, Loo, CK (2015). Comparison of the effects of transcranial random noise stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation on motor cortical excitability. J ECT, 31, 67–72.Google Scholar

Holtzheimer, PE, Husain, MM, Lisanby, SH, et al. (2017). Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: a multisite, randomised, sham-controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 839–849. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30371-1.Google Scholar

Horvath, JC, Forte, JD, Carter, O (2015). Quantitative review finds no evidence of cognitive effects in healthy populations from single-session transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Brain Stimul, 8, 535–550.Google Scholar

International Neuromodulation Society (2016). Welcome to the International Neuromodulation Society. Available at: www.neuromodulation.com (last accessed 21.12.16).Google Scholar

Jelovac, A, Kolshus, E, McLoughlin, DM (2013). Relapse following successful electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38, 2467–2474.Google Scholar

Jelovac, A, O’Connor, S, McCarron, S, McLoughlin, DM (2016). Autobiographical memory specificity in major depression treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT, 32, 38–43.Google Scholar

Kellner, CH, Knapp, RG, Petrides, G, et al. (2006). Continuation electroconvulsive therapy vs pharmacotherapy for relapse prevention in major depression: a multisite study from the Consortium for Research in Electroconvulsive Therapy (CORE). Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63, 1337–1344.Google Scholar

Kellner, CH, Knapp, R, Husain, MM, et al. (2010). Bifrontal, bitemporal and right unilateral electrode placement in ECT: randomised trial. Br J Psychiatry, 196, 226–234.Google Scholar

Kindler, S, Shapira, B, Hadjez, J, et al. (1991). Factors influencing response to bilateral electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. Convuls Ther, 7, 245–254.Google Scholar

Krystal, AD, Coffey, CE (1997). Neuropsychiatric considerations in the use of electroconvulsive therapy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 9, 283–292.Google Scholar

Leroy, A, Naudet, F, Vaiva, G, et al. (2018). Is electroconvulsive therapy an evidence-based treatment for catatonia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 268, 675–687.Google Scholar

Limousin, P, Pollak, P, Benazzouz, A, et al. (1995). Effect of parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation. Lancet, 345, 91–95.Google Scholar

Lisanby, SH, Luber, B, Schlaepfer, TE, Sackeim, HA (2003). Safety and feasibility of magnetic seizure therapy (MST) in major depression: randomized within-subject comparison with electroconvulsive therapy. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 1852–1865.Google Scholar

Loo, CK, Mahon, M, Katalinic, N, Lyndon, B, Hadzi-Pavlovic, D (2011). Predictors of response to ultrabrief right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. J Affect Disord, 130, 192–197.Google Scholar

Madsen, TM, Treschow, A, Bengzon, J, et al. (2000). Increased neurogenesis in a model of electroconvulsive therapy. Biol Psychiatry, 47, 1043–1049.Google Scholar

Mallet, L, Polosan, M, Jaafari, N, et al. (2008). Subthalamic nucleus stimulation in severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. N Engl J Med, 359, 2121–2134.Google Scholar

Marangell, LB, Rush, AJ, George, MS, et al. (2002). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for major depressive episodes: one year outcomes. Biol Psychiatry, 51, 280–287.Google Scholar

Martin, JLR, Martín-Sánchez, E (2012). Systematic review and meta-analysis of vagus nerve stimulation in the treatment of depression: variable results based on study designs. Eur Psychiatry, 27, 147–155.Google Scholar

Mayberg, HS (2009). Targeted electrode-based modulation of neural circuits for depression. J Clin Invest, 119, 717–725.Google Scholar

Mayberg, HS, Lozano, AM, Voon, V, et al. (2005). Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron, 45, 651–660.Google Scholar

McClelland, J, Kekic, M, Bozhilova, N, et al. (2016). A randomised controlled trial of neuronavigated repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in anorexia nervosa. PLoS One , 11, e0148606.Google Scholar

Medda, P, Mauri, M, Toni, C, et al. (2014). Predictors of remission in 208 drug-resistant depressive patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT, 30, 292–297.Google Scholar

Milev, RV, Giacobbe, P, Kennedy, SH, et al. (2016). Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) 2016 Clinical Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder: Section 4. Neurostimulation Treatments. Can J Psychiatry, 61, 561–575.Google Scholar

Mu, Q, Bohning, DE, Nahas, Z, et al. (2004). Acute vagus nerve stimulation using different pulse widths produces varying brain effects. Biol Psychiatry, 55, 816–825.Google Scholar

Munk-Olsen, T, Laursen, TM, Videbech, P, Mortensen, PB, Rosenberg, R (2007). All-cause mortality among recipients of electroconvulsive therapy: register-based cohort study. Br J Psychiatry, 190, 435–459.Google Scholar

Nahas, Z, Marangell, LB, Husain, MM, et al. (2005). Two-year outcome of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment of major depressive episodes. J Clin Psychiatry, 66, 1097–1104.Google Scholar

Nardone, R, Tezzon, F, Höller, Y, et al. (2014). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)/repetitive TMS in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand, 129, 351–366.Google Scholar

National Institute for Clinical Excellence (2003). Guidance on the use of electroconvulsive therapy. Technical appraisal guidance [TA59]. London: National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Available at: www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/TA59 (last accessed 31.8.19).Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2009). Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Interventional procedures guidance [IPG330]. London: National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2015). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression. Interventional procedures guidance [IPG542]. London: National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Available at: http://nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg542 (last accessed 31.8.19).Google Scholar

Navarro, V, Gasto, C, Torres, X, et al. (2008). Continuation/maintenance treatment with nortriptyline versus combined nortriptyline and ECT in late-life psychotic depression: a two-year randomized study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 16, 498–505.Google Scholar

Ng, C, Schweitzer, I, Alexopoulos, P, et al. (2000). Efficacy and cognitive effects of right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy. Journal of ECT, 16, 370–379.Google Scholar

Nordenskjöld, A, von Knorring, L, Engström, I (2012). Predictors of the short-term responder rate of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders – a population based study. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 115.Google Scholar

Nutt, DJ, Gleiter, CH, Glue, P (1989). Neuropharmacological aspects of ECT: in search of the primary mechanism of action. Convul Ther, 5, 250–260.Google Scholar

Nuttin, B, Cosyns, P, Demeulemeester, H, Gybels, J, Meyerson, B (1999). Electrical stimulation in anterior limbs of internal capsules in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Lancet, 354, 1526.Google Scholar

Oltedal, L, Narr, KL, Abbott, C, et al. (2018). Volume of the human hippocampus and clinical response following electroconvulsive therapy. Biol Psychiatry, 84, 574–581.Google Scholar

Palm, U, Hasan, A, Strube, W, Padberg, F (2016). tDCS for the treatment of depression: a comprehensive review. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 266, 681–694.Google Scholar

Pande, AC, Krugler, T, Haskett, RF, Greden, JF, Grunhaus, LJ (1988). Predictors of response to electroconvulsive therapy in major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 24, 91–93.Google Scholar

Penry, JK, Dean, JC (1990). Prevention of intractable partial seizures by intermittent vagal stimulation in humans: preliminary results. Epilepsia, 31(Suppl 2), S40–S43.Google Scholar

Perrin, JS, Merz, S, Bennett, DM, et al. (2012). Electroconvulsive therapy reduces frontal cortical connectivity in severe depressive disorder. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 109, 5464–5468.Google Scholar

Philip, NS, Barredo, J, van ’t Wout-Frank, M, et al. (2018). Network mechanisms of clinical response to transcranial magnetic stimulation in posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 83, 263–272.Google Scholar

Pinna, M, Manchia, M, Oppo, R, et al. (2018). Clinical and biological predictors of response to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a review. Neurosci Lett, 669, 32–42.Google Scholar

Prudic, J, Sackeim, HA, Devanand, DP (1990). Medication resistance and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Res, 31, 287–296.Google Scholar

RCPsych Committee on ECT and Related Treatments (2017). Statement on Neurosurgery for Mental Disorder (NMD), also known as Psychiatric Neurosurgery (Position statement CERT 05/17). London: Royal College of Psychiatrists.Google Scholar

Ren, J, Li, H, Palaniyappan, L, et al. (2014). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 51, 181–189.Google Scholar

Rocha, RB, Dondossola, ER, Grande, AJ, et al. (2016). Increased BDNF levels after electroconvulsive therapy in patients with major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis study. J Psychiatr Res, 83, 47–53.Google Scholar

Rong, P, Liu, J, Wang, L, et al. (2016). Effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on major depressive disorder: a nonrandomized controlled pilot study. J Affect Disord, 195, 172–179.Google Scholar

Rossi, S, Hallett, M, Rossini, PM, Pascual-Leone, A; Safety of TMS Consensus Group (2009). Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research. Clin Neurophysiology, 120, 2008–2039.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, George, MS, Sackeim, HA, et al. (2000). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for treatment-resistant depressions: a multicenter study. Biol Psychiatry, 47, 276–286.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, Marangell, LB, Sackeim, HA, et al. (2005a). Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: a randomized, controlled acute phase trial. Biol Psychiatry, 58, 347–354.Google Scholar

Rush, AJ, Sackei, HA, Marangell, LB, et al. (2005b). Effects of 12 months of vagus nerve stimulation in treatment-resistant depression: a naturalistic study. Biol Psychiatry, 58, 355–363.Google Scholar

Sackeim, HA, Prudic, J, Devanand, DP, et al. (2000). A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparison of bilateral and right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy at different stimulus intensities. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 57, 425–434.Google Scholar

Sackeim, HA, Haskett, RF, Mulsant, BH, et al. (2001). Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 285, 1299–1307.Google Scholar

Saleh, C, Fontaine, D (2015). Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric diseases: what are the risks? Curr Psychiatry Rep, 17, 1–14.Google Scholar

SEAN (2016). SEAN Annual Report 2016. A Summary of ECT in Scotland for 2015. Edinburgh: Scottish ECT Audit Network.Google Scholar

SEAN (2017). SEAN Annual Report 2017. A Summary of ECT in Scotland for 2016. Edinburgh: Scottish ECT Audit Network.Google Scholar

Semkovska, M, McLoughlin, DM (2010). Objective cognitive performance associated with electroconvulsive therapy for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry, 68, 568–577.Google Scholar

Sheline, YI, Price, JL, Yan, Z, Mintun, MA (2010). Resting-state functional MRI in depression unmasks increased connectivity between networks via the dorsal nexus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 107, 11020–11025.Google Scholar

Shiwach, RS, Reid, WH, Carmody, TJ (2001). An analysis of reported deaths following electroconvulsive therapy in Texas, 1993–1998. Psychiatr Serv, 52, 1095–1097.Google Scholar

Straasø, B, Lauritzen, L, Lunde, M, et al. (2014). Dose-remission of pulsating electromagnetic fields as augmentation in therapy-resistant depression: a randomized, double-blind controlled study. Acta Neuropsychiatr, 26, 272–279.Google Scholar

Tharyan, P, Adams, CE (2005). Electroconvulsive therapy for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (2), CD000076. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000076.pub2.Google Scholar

Tor, PC, Bautovich, A, Wang, MJ, et al. (2015). A systematic review and meta-analysis of brief versus ultrabrief right unilateral electroconvulsive therapy for depression. J Clin Psychiatry, 76, e1092–e1098.Google Scholar

TrevizoL, AP, Shiozawa, P, Cook, IA, et al. (2016). Transcranial magnetic stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. J ECT, 32, 262–266.Google Scholar

Tyagi, H, Zrinzo, L, Akram, H, et al. (2017). A randomised controlled trial of deep brain stimulation in obsessive compulsive disorder: a comparison of ventral capsule/ventral striatum and subthalamic nucleus targets. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 88, A8–A9.Google Scholar

UK ECT Review Group (2003). Systematic Review of the Efficacy and Safety of Electroconvulsive Therapy. London: Department of Health.Google Scholar

van Schaik, AM, Comijs, HC, Sonnenberg, CM, et al. (2012). Efficacy and safety of continuation and maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in depressed elderly patients: a systematic review. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry, 20, 5–17.Google Scholar

Vila-Rodriguez, F, McGirr, A, Tham, J, Hadjipavlou, G, Honey, CR (2014). Electroconvulsive therapy in patients with deep brain stimulators. J ECT, 30, e16–e18.Google Scholar

Watts, BV, Groft, A, Bagian, JP, Mills, PD (2011). An examination of mortality and other adverse events related to electroconvulsive therapy using a national adverse event report system. J ECT, 27, 105–108.Google Scholar

Xia, G, Gajwani, P, Muzina, DJ, et al. (2008). Treatment-emergent mania in unipolar and bipolar depression: focus on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacology, 11, 119–130.Google Scholar

Zhou, D-D, Wang, W, Wang, G-M, Li, D-Q, Kuang, L (2017). An updated meta-analysis: short-term therapeutic effects of repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation in treating obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disord, 215, 187–196.Google Scholar

Book contents

Part 2 - Psychopharmacology of the Main Psychotropic Drug Groups

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

Book contents

Part 2 - Psychopharmacology of the Main Psychotropic Drug Groups

Access options

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive