Births: final data for 1997. National Vital Statistics Report 1999; 47:99–120.
Reempts, P J, Acker, K J. Ethical aspects of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in premature infants: where do we stand? Resuscitation 2001; 51:225–232.
Bloch, H. Abandonment, infanticide, and feticide. An overview of inhumanity to children. Am J Dis Child 1988; 142:1058–1060.
Boswell, J. The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance. New York: Pantheon; 1989.
Lecky, W. History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne. Vol. 2. New York: Brazillier; 1955:25–26.
Langer, W L. Europe's initial population explosion. Am Hist Rev 1963; 69:1–17.
Selection from the Hippocratic Corpus. The Art (circa 5th–4th century BC). In: Reiser, S J, Dyck, A J, Curran, W J, eds. Ethics in Medicine: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Concerns. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1977:6–7.
Plato, . The Republic. Translated by Grube GMA. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing; 1974:42.
Alexander, G R, Slay, M. Prematurity at birth: trends, racial disparities, and epidemiology. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 215–220.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant mortality low birth weight among black and white infants – United States, 1980–2000. MMWR 2002; 51:589–592.
Guyer, B, Hoyert, D L, Martin, J. Annual summary of vital statistics – 1998. Pediatrics 1999; 104:1229–1246.
Eichenwald, E C, Stark, A R. High frequency ventilation: current status. Pediatr Rev 1999; 20:e127–e133.
Ballard, P L. Scientific rationale for the use of antenatal glucocorticoids to promote fetal development. Pediatr Rev 2000; 1:e83–e90.
Curley, A E, Halliday, H L. The present status of exogenous surfactant for the newborn. Early Hum Dev 2001; 61:67–85.
Thorp, J M, Hartmann, K E, Berkman, J D. Antibiotic therapy for the treatment of preterm labor. A review of the evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186:587–592.
Iams, J D, Mercer, B M. What we have learned about antenatal prediction of neonatal morbidity and mortality. Semin Perinatol 2003; 27:247–252.
Murphy, S L. Deaths: final data for 1998. National Vital Statistics Reports 2000: 48:87.
Branum, A M, Schoendorf, K C. Changing patterns of low birth weight and preterm birth in the United States, 1981–1998. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2002: 16:8–15.
Evans, D J, Levene, M I. Evidence of selection bias in preterm survival studies: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001; 84:F79–F84.
Allen, M C. Preterm outcomes research: a critical component of neonatal intensive care. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 8:221–233.
El-Metwally, D, Vohr, B, Tucker, R. Survival and neonatal morbidity at the limits of viability in the mid 1990's. J Pediatr 2000: 137:612–622.
Lorenz, J M, Paneth, N, Jetton, J R, Ouden, L, Tyson, J E. Comparison of management strategies for extreme prematurity in New Jersey and the Netherlands: outcomes and resource expenditure. Pediatrics 2001; 108:1269–1274.
Ferrara, T B, Hoekstra, R E, Couser, R J. Survival and follow up of infants born at 23 to 26 weeks of gestational age: effects of surfactant therapy. J Pediatr 1994; 124:119–124.
Hack, M, Friedman, H, Fanaroff, A. Outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 1996; 98:931–937.
The Victorian Infant Collaborative Study Group. Improved outcome into the 1990s for infants weighing 500–999g at birth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1997: 77:F91–F94.
Hack, M, Fanaroff, A. Outcomes of children of extremely low birth weight and gestational age in the 1990s. Early Hum Dev 1999: 53:193–218.
Gray, P H, Jones, P, O'Callaghan, M J. Maternal antecedents for cerebral palsy in extremely preterm babies: a case controlled study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2001; 43:580–585.
Horbar, J D, Badger, G J, Carpenter, J H. Trends in mortality and morbidity for very low birth weight infants, 1991–1999. Pediatrics 2002: 110:143–151.
Lorenz, J M. Survival of the extremely preterm infant in North America in the 1990s. Clin Perinatol 2000: 27:255–262.
Tyson, J E, Younes, N, Verter, J, Wright, L L. Viability, morbidity, and resource use among newborns of 501–800g birth weight. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. JAMA 1996; 276:1645–1651.
Lorenz, J M. Management decisions in extremely premature infants. Semin Neonatol 2003; 8:475–482.
Hack, M, Wright, L L, Shanbaran, S. Very low birth weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Network, November 1989 to October 1990. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996: 172:457–464.
Sauve, R S, Robertson, C, Etches, P, Byrne, P J, Dayer-Zamora, V. Before viability: a geographically based outcome study of infants 500grams or less at birth. Pediatrics 1998; 101:438–448.
Chan, K, Ohlsson, A, Synnes, A, Lee, D S C, Chien, L, Lee, S K. Survival, morbidity, and resource use of infants of 25 weeks gestational age or less. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 185:220–226.
Effer, S B, Moutquin, J-M, Farine, D, Saigal, S, Nimrod, C, Kelly, E, Nigorsenga, J. Neonatal survival rates in 860 singleton live births at 24 and 25 weeks gestational age. A Canadian multicenter study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2002; 109:740–745.
Committee of Newborn Infant, Japan Society of Pediatrics. Neonatal white paper in Japan. J Jpn Pediatr Soc 1986; 90:2827–2855.
Committee of Newborn Infant, Japan Society of Pediatrics. Report on the current status of NICU and neonatal mortality in Japan. J Jpn Pediatr Soc 1991; 95:2454–2461.
Oishi, M, Nishida, H, Sasaki, T. Japanese experience with micropremies weighing less than 600 grams born between 1984 to 1993. Pediatrics 1997: 99:1–5.
Nishida, H. Perinatal care in Japan. J Perinatol 1997; 17:70–74.
Gultom, E, Doyle, L W, Davis, P, Dharmaluigam, A, Bowman, E. Changes over time in attitudes to treatment and survival rates for extremely preterm infants 23–27 weeks' gestational age. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 37:56–58.
Doyle, L W, Gultom, E, Chuang, S L, James, M, Davis, P, Bowman, E. Changing mortality and causes of death in infants 23–27 weeks' gestational age. J Paediatr Child Hlth 1999; 35:255–259.
Wood, N S, Marlow, N, Costeloe, K, Gibson, A T, Wilkinson, A R, for the EPI Cure Study Group. Neurologic and developmental disability after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2000; 343:378–384.
Ayoubi, J M, Audibere, F, Boithas, C, Zupan, V, Taylor, S, Bosson, J L, Frydman, R. Perinatal factors affecting survival without disability of extremely premature infants at two years of age. Eur J Obstet Gynaecol Reprod Biol 2002; 105:125–131.
Reuss, M L, Gordon, H R. Obstetrical judgments of viability and perinatal survival of extremely low birth weight infants. Am J Publ Hlth 1995; 85:362–366.
Silver, R K, MacGregor, S N, Farrell, E E, Ragin, A, Davis, C, Sokol, M L. Perinatal factors influencing survival at 24 weeks gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168:1724–1731.
Bottoms, S F, Paul, R H, Iams, J D. Obstetric determinants of neonatal survival: influence of willingness to perform cesarean section on survival of extremely low birth weight infants. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal Fetal Medicine Units. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 176:960–966.
Bottoms, S F, Paul, R H, Mercer, B M. Antenatal predictors of neonatal survival and morbidity in extremely low birth weight infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180:665–669.
Rennie, J M. Perinatal management at the margin of viability. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1996; 74:F214–F218.
Sims, D G, Heal, C A, Bartle, Sm. Use of adrenaline and atropine in neonatal resuscitation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1994; 70:F3–F9.
Sond, S, Glacois, P. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation in very low birth weight infants. Am J Perinatol 1992; 9:130–133.
Davis, D J. How aggressive should delivery room CPR be for ELBW neonates? Pediatrics 1993; 92:447–450.
Macfarlane, P I, Wood, S, Bennett, J. Non-viable delivery at 20–23 weeks gestation: observations and signs of life after birth. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003; 83:F199–F202.
Jankov, R P, Asztalos, E V, Skidmore, M B. Favourable neurological outcomes following delivery room cardiopulmonary resuscitation of infants <750gs at birth. J Paediatr Child Hlth 2000; 36:19–22.
Doron, M W, Veness-Meehan, K A, Margolis, L H. Delivery room resuscitation decisions for extremely premature infants. Pediatrics 1998; 102:574–582.
Finer, N N, Tarin, T, Vaucher, Y E, Barrington, K, Bejar, R. Intact survival in extremely low birth weight infants after delivery room resuscitation. Pediatrics 1999; 104:e40–e44.
Costeloe, K, Hennessy, E, Gibson, A T for the EPICure Study Group. The EPICure Study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for infants born at the threshold viability. Pediatrics 2000; 106:659–671.
Heide, A, Maas, P J, Wal, G. Medical end-of-life decisions made for neonates and infants in the Netherlands. Lancet 1997; 350:251–255.
Straughn, H K, Goldenberg, R L, Tolosa, J E. Birthweight-specific neonatal mortality in developing countries and obstetric practices. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2003; 80:71–78.
Malhotra, D, Gopalan, S, Narang, A. Preterm breech delivery in a developing country. J Gynaecol Obstet 1994; 45:27–34.
Morse, S B, Haywood, J L, Goldenberg, R L, Bornstein, J, Nelson, K G, Carlo, W A. Estimation of neonatal outcome and perinatal therapy use. Pediatrics 2000; 105:1046–1056.
Cook, L A, Watchko, J F. Decision making for the critically ill neonate near the end of life. J Perinatol 1996; 16:133–136.
Ginsberg, H G, Goldsmith, J P. Controversies in neonatal resuscitation. Clin Perinatol 1998; 25:1–15.
Campbell, D E, Fleischman, A R. Limits of viability: dilemmas, decisions, and decision makers. Am J Perinatol 2001; 18:117–128.
Heywood, J L, Goldenberg, R L, Bronstein, J, Nelson, K G, Carlo, W A. Comparison of perceived and actual rates of survival and freedom from handicap in premature infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171:432–439.
Sheldon, T. Dutch doctors change policy on treating preterm babies. Brit Med J 2001; 322:1383.
Breborowicz, G H. Limits of fetal viability and its enhancement. Early Pregnancy 2001; 5:49–50.
Doyle, L W. Outcome at 5 years of age for children 23 to 27 weeks' gestation: refining the prognosis. Pediatrics 2001; 108:134–141.
Saigal, S, Szatzmari, P, Rosenbaum, P, Campbell, D, King, S. Cognitive abilities and school performance of extremely low birth weight children and matched term control children at age 8 years: a regional study. J Pediatr 1991; 118:751–760.
Escobar, G J, Littenberg, B, Pettiti, D B. Outcome among surviving very low birth weight infants: a meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child 1991; 66:204–211.
Szatmari, P, Saigal, S, Rosenbaum, P, Campbell, D. Psychopathology and adaptive functioning among extremely low birth weight children at eight years of age. Dev Psychopathol 1993; 5:345–357.
Hille, E T M, Ouden, A L, Bauer, L, Oudenrijn, C, Brand, R, Verloore-Vanhorick, S P. School performance at nine years of age in very premature and low birth weight infants: perinatal risk factors and predictors at 5 years of age. J Pediatr 1994; 125:426–434.
Hack, M, Taylor, H G, Klein, N, Eiben, R, Schatschneider, C, Mercuri-Minich, N. School-age outcomes in children with birthweights under 750g. N Engl J Med 1994; 331:753–759.
Hille, E T M, Den, Ouden A L, Saigal, S. Behavioural problems in children who weigh 1000g or less at birth in four countries. Lancet 2001: 357:1641–1643.
Saigal, S, Pinelli, J, Hoult, Kim M, Boyle, M. Psychopathology and social competencies of adolescents who were extremely low birth weights. Pediatrics 2003; 111:969–975.
Saigal, S, Burrows, E, Stoskopf, B L, Rosenbaum, P L, Streiner, D L. Impact of extreme prematurity on families of adolescent children. J Pediatr 2000; 137:701–706.
Singer, L, Salvator, A, Guo, S, Collin, M, Lillien, M, Bailey, J. Maternal psychological distress and parenting stress after the birth of a very low birth weight infant. JAMA 1999; 281:799–805.
Levy-Shiff, R, Einat, G, Mogilner, M B, Lerman, M, Krikler, R. Biological and environmental correlates of developmental outcome of prematurely born infants in early adolescence. J Pediatr Psychol 1994; 19:63–78.
Gross, S J, Mettelbaum, B B, Dye, T D, Siagle, T A. Impact of family structure and stability on academic outcome in preterm children at 10 years of age. J Pediatr 2001; 138:169–175.
Inder, T, Huppi, P, Warfield, S. Periventricular white matter injury in the premature infant is followed by reduced cerebral cortical gray matter volume at term. Ann Neurol 1999: 46:755–760.
Maalouf, E, Duggan, P, Rutherford, M. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in a cohort of extremely preterm infants. J Pediatr 1999; 135:351–357.
Peterson, B S, Vohr, B, Staib, L H. Regional brain volume abnormalities and long-term cognitive outcome in preterm infants. JAMA 2000; 284:1939–1947.
Ajayi-Obe, M, Saeed, N, Cowan, F M, Rutherford, M A, Edwards, A D. Reduced development of cerebral cortex in extremely preterm infants. Lancet 2000; 356:1162–1163.
Skranes, J, Nilson, G, Smevik, O, Vik, T, Brubakk, A. Cerebral MRI of very low birth weight children at 6 years of age compared with the findings at 1 year. Pediatr Radiol 1998; 28:471–475.
Stewart, A L, Rifkin, L, Amess, P N. Brain structure and neurocognitive and behavioural function in adolescents who were born very preterm. Lancet 1999; 353:1653–1657.
Isaacs, E B, Lucas, A, Chong, W K. Hippocompal volume and everyday memory in children of very low birth weight. Pediatr Res 2000; 47:713–720.
Nosarti, C., Al-Asady, M H S, Frangou, S, Stewart, A L, Rifkin, L, Murray, R M. Adolescents who were born very preterm have decreased brain volumes. Brain 2002; 125:1616–1623.
Peterson, B S, Anderson, A W, Ehrenkranz, R. Regional brain volumes and their later neurodevelopmental correlates in term and preterm infants. Pediatrics 2003; 111:939–948.
Hack, M, Klein, N, Taylor, H G. Long term developmental outcomes of low birth weight infants. Future Child 1995; 5:176–196.
Saigal, S, Den, Ouden L, Wolke, O. School-age outcomes in children who were extremely low birth weight from four international population-based cohorts. Pediatrics 2003; 112:943–950.
Anderson, P, Doyle, L W, Victorian Infant Collaborative Study Group. Neurobehavioral outcomes of school-age children born extremely low birth weight or very preterm in the 1990s. JAMA 2003; 289:3264–3272.
Wolke, D, Ratschinski, G, Ohrt, B. The cognitive outcome of very preterm infants may be poorer than often reported: an empirical investigation of how methodological issues make a big difference. Eur J Pediatr 1994; 153:906–915.
Morley, R, Farewell, V. Methodological issues in randomized controlled trials. Semin Neonatol 2000; 5:141–148.
Ericson, A, Kallen, B. Very low birth weight boys at the age of 19. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998; 78:F171–F174.
Msall, M E, Tremont, M R. Functional outcomes in self-care, mobility, communication, and learning in extremely low birth weight infants. Clin Perinatol 2000; 27:281–419.
Field, D, Peterson, S, Clarke, M, Draper, E S. Extreme prematurity in the UK and Denmark: population differences in viability. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002; 87:172–175.
Highlights on Health in Denmark. Epidemiology, Statistics, and Health Information Unit, WHO Regional Office for Europe. Available at: http://www.who.dk/country/dan01.pdf (accessed 2005).
National statistics. The official UK statistics site. Available at: www.statistics.gov.uk (accessed 2005).
Vohr, B, Wright, L L, Dusick, A M. Neurodevelopmental and functional outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network 1993–1994. Pediatrics 2000: 105:1216–1222.
Schmidt, B, Asztalos, E V, Roberts, R S, Robertson, C M T, Sauve, R S, Whitfield, M F. Impact of bronchopulmonary dysplasia, brain injury, and severe retinopathy on the outcome of extremely low birth weight infants at 18 months: Results from the trial of indomethacin prophylaxis in preterms. JAMA 2003; 289:1124–1129.
Piecuch, R E, Leonard, C H, Cooper, B A. Outcome of infants born at 24–26 weeks gestation. II. Neurodevelopmental outcome. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 90:809–814.
Piecuch, R E, Leonard, C H, Cooper, B A. Outcome of extremely low birth weight infants (500 to 999 grams) over a 12-year period. Pediatrics 1997; 100:633–639.
Tudehope, D, Burns, Y R, Gray, P H. Changing patterns of survival and outcome at 4 years of children who weighed 500–999g at birth. J Paediatr Child Hlth 1995; 31:451–456.
Victorian Infant Collaborative Study. Neurosensory outcome at 5 years and extremely low birth weight. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1995; 73:43–46.
Casiro, O, Bingham, W, MacMurray, B. The Canadian Exosurf neonatal study group and the Canadian Exosurf neonatal study group: one-year follow up of 89 infants with birth weights 500–749 grams and respiratory distress syndrome randomized to 2 rescue doses of surfactant or air placebo. J Pediatr 1995; 126:553–560.
Ment, L R, Vohr, B, Oh, W. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 36 months corrected age of preterm infants in the multicenter indomethacin intraventricular hemorrhage prevention trial. Pediatrics 1996; 98:714–718.
Hagberg, B, Hagberg, G, Olow, I. The changing panorama of cerebral palsy in Sweden VII: prevalence and origin in the birth year 1987–1990. Acta Paediatr 1996; 85:954–960.
Horwood, L J, Mogridge, N, Darlow, B A. Cognitive, educational, and behavioural outcomes at 7 to 8 years in a national very low birth weight cohort. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998; 79:F12–F20.
Buck, G M, Msall, M E, Schusterman, E F. Extreme prematurity and school outcomes. Social and biomedical risks. Pediatr Perinatal Epidemiol 2000; 14:324–331.
Whitfield, M F, Grunau, R V, Holsti, L. Extremely premature (<800g) school children: multiple areas of disability. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1997; 77:F85–F90.
Saigal, S, Szatmari, P, Rosenbaum, P. Intellectual and functional status at school entry of children who weighed 1000 grams or less at birth: a regional perspective of births in the 1980s. J Pediatr 1990; 116:409–416.
Msall, M E, Rogers, B T, Buck, G M. Functional status of extremely preterm infants at kindergarten entry. Dev Med Child Neurol 1993; 35:312–320.
Msall, M E, Tremont, M R. Measuring functional outcomes after prematurity: developmental impact of very low birth weight and extremely low birth weight status on childhood disability. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 8:258–272.
Halsey, C L, Collin, M F, Anderson, C L. Extremely low birth weight children and their peers: a comparison of school-age outcomes. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996; 150:790–794.
Saigal, S, Szatmari, M, Rosenbaum, P. Can learning disabilities in children who were extremely low birth weight be identified at school entry? J Dev Behav Pediatr 1992; 13:356–362.
Wolke, D, Söhne, B, Ohrt, B, Riegel, K. Follow-up of preterm children: important to document dropouts. Lancet 1995; 345–447.
Johnson, A, Bowler, U, Yudkin, P. Health and school performance of teenagers born before 29 weeks gestation. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003; 88: F190–F198.
Doyle, L W, Casalaz, D, for the Victorian Infant Collaborative Study Group. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001; F159–F164.
Saigal, S, Hoult, L A, Streiner, D L. School difficulties at adolescence in a regional cohort of children who were extremely low birth weight. Pediatrics 2000; 105:325–331.
Saigal, S, Stoskopf, B L, Streiner, D L. Physical growth and current health status of infants who were of extremely low birth weight and controls at adolescence. Pediatrics 2001; 108:407–415.
Roth, S, Wyatt, J, Boudin, J. Neurodevelopmental status at 1 year predicts neuropsychiatric outcome at 14–15 years of age in very preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 2001; 65:81–89.
Hack, M, Taylor, H G, Klein, N. Functional limitations and special health care needs of 10–14 year old children weighing less than 750 grams at birth. Pediatrics 2000; 106:554–560.
D'Angio, C T, Sinkin, R A, Stevens, T P. Longitudinal 15-year follow up of children born at less than 29 weeks gestation after introduction of surfactant therapy into a region: neurologic, cognitive, and educational outcomes. Pediatrics 2002; 110:1094–1102.
Dineson, S J, Greisen, G. Quality of life in young adults with very low birth weight. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001; F165–F169.
Donohue, P K. Health related quality of life of preterm children and their caregivers. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 8:293–297.
Bennett, F C, Scott, D T. Long-term perspective on premature infant outcome and contemporary intervention issues. Semin Perinatol 1997; 21:190–201.
Bracewell, M, Marlow, N. Patterns of motor disability in very preterm children. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 8:241–248.
Taylor, H G, Klein, N, Hack, M. School-age consequences of birth weight less than 750g: a review and update. Dev Neuropsychol 2000; 17:289–321.
Taylor, H G, Klein, N, Minich, N M. Middle-school-age outcomes in children with very low birth weight. Child Dev 2000; 71:1495–1511.
Aylward, G P. Cognitive and neuropsychological outcomes: more than IQ scores. MRDD Research Reviews 2002; 8:234–240.
Finer, N N, Barrington, K J. Decision-making delivery room resuscitation: a team sport. Pediatrics 1998; 102:644–645.
Lorenz, J M, Paneth, N. Treatment decisions for the extremely premature infant. J Pediatr 2000; 137:593–595.
Rhoden, N R. Treating Baby Doe: the ethics of uncertainty. Hastings Cent Rep 1986; 16:34–42.
Wall, S N, Partridge, J C. Death in the intensive care nursery: physician practice of withdrawing and withholding life support. Pediatrics 1997; 99:64–70.
Ballard, D W, Li, W, Evans, J, Ballard, R A, Ubel, P A. Fear of litigation may increase resuscitation of infants born near the limits of viability. J Pediatr 2002; 140:713–718.
Saigal, S, Stoskopf, B, Feeny, D. Differences in preferences for neonatal outcomes among health care professionals, parents, and adolescents. JAMA 1999; 281:1991–1997.
Saigal S, Rosenbaum P, Hoult L et al. Conceptual and methodological issues in assessing health-related quality of life in children and adolescents: illustration from studies of extremely low birth weight survivors. In: Drotar, D, ed. Measuring Health-Related Quality of Life in Children and Adolescents: Implications for Research and Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1998:151–169.
Churchill, D N, Torrance, G W, Taylor, D W. Measurement of quality of life in end-stage renal disease: the time trade-off approach. Clin Invest Med 1987; 10:14–20.
Slevin, M I, Stubbs, L, Plant, H J. Attitudes to chemotherapy: comparing views of patients with cancer with those of doctors, nurses, and general public. Brit Med J 1990; 300:1458–1460.
Streiner, D L, Saigal, S, Burrows, E, Stoskopf, B, Rosenbaum, P. Attitudes of parents and health care professionals toward active treatment of extremely premature infants. Pediatrics 2002; 108:152–157.
Lee, S K, Penner, P L, Cox, M. Impact of very low birth weight infants on the family and its relationship to parental attitudes. Pediatrics 1991; 88:105–109.
Wainer, S, Khuzwayo, H. Attitudes of mothers, doctors, and nurses toward neonatal intensive care in a developing society. Pediatrics 1993; 91:1171–1175.
Sanders, M R, Donohue, P K, Oberdorf, M A, Rosenkrantz, T S, Allen, M C. Perceptions of the limit of viability: neonatologists' attitudes toward extremely preterm infants. J Perinatol 1995; 15:494–502.
Norup, M. Treatment of extremely premature newborns: a survey of attitudes among Danish physicians. Acta Paediatr 1998; 87:896–902.
DeLeeuw, R, DeBeaufort, A J, DeKleine, M J K, VanHarrewijn, K, Kiuée, L A A. Foregoing intensive care treatment in newborn infants with extremely poor prognoses. J Pediatr 1996; 129:661–666.
McHaffie, H E, Laing, I A, Parker, M, McMillan, J. Deciding for imperiled newborns: medical authority or parental autonomy. J Med Ethics 2001; 27:104–109.
Norup, M. Limits of neonatal treatment: a survey of attitudes in the Danish population. J Med Ethics 1998; 24:200–206.
Munro, M, Yu, V, Partridge, J C, Martinez, A M. Antenatal counseling, resuscitation practices and attitudes among Australian neonatologists towards life support in extreme prematurity. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 2001; 41:275–280.
Da, Costa D E, Ghazal, H, AlKhusaiby, S. Do not resuscitate orders and ethical decisions in a neonatal intensive care unit in a Muslim community. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002; 86:F115–F119.
Fenton, A C, Fields, D V, Mason, E, Clarke, M. Attitudes to viability of preterm infants and their effect on figures for perinatal mortality. Brit Med J 1990; 300:434–436.
Heide, A, Maas, P J, Wal, G, Killèe, L A A, Leeuw, R, Hou, R A. The role of parents in end-of-life decisions in neonatology: physicians' views and practices. Pediatrics 1998; 101:413–418.
Wolder, Levin B.International perspectives on treatment choice in neonatal intensive care units. Soc Sci Med 1990; 30:901–912.
Silverman, W A. Over treatment of neonates? A personal retrospective. Pediatrics 1992; 90:971–975.
Pinkerton, J V, Finnerty, J J, Lombardo, P A, Rorty, M V, Chapple, H, Boyle, R J. Parental rights at the birth of a near-viable infant: conflicting perspectives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997; 177:283–290.
Leeuw, R, Cuttini, M, Nadai, M. Treatment choices for extremely preterm infants: an international perspective. J Pediatr 2000; 137:593–595.
Rebagliato, M, Cuttini, M, Broggin, L. Neonatal end-of-life decision making: physicians' attitudes and relationship with self-reported practices in 10 European countries. JAMA 2000; 281:2451–2459.
Cuttini, M, Nadai, M, Kaminski, M. End-of-life decisions in neonatal intensive care. Lancet 2000; 355:2112–2118.
Meadow, W L, Lantos, J. Epidemiology and ethics in the neonatal intensive care unit. Qual Manage Health Care 1999; 7:21–31.
Nishida, H, Oishi, M. Survival and disability in extremely tiny babies less than 600g birth weight. Semin Neonatol 1996; 1:251–256.
Beauchamp T. Introduction to ethics. In: Beauchamp, T L, Walters, L, eds. Contemporary Issues in Bioethics. 5th ed. Boston: Wadsworth Publishing Company; 1999:1.
Ibid., p5.
Jonsen, A R. A Short History of Medical Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2000:2.
Ibid., p3.
Ibid., p17.
Calvao-Sabrinho, C. Hippocratic ideals, medical ethics, and the practice of medicine in the early middle ages: legacy of the Hippocratic Oath. J History Med Allied Sciences 1996; 50:438–456.
Jonsen, p17–18.
Ibid., p21–22.
Ibid., p45.
Ibid., p45–46.
Leake, C. Ed. Percival's Medical Ethics. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1927.
Jonsen, p70.
Ibid., p83.
Ibid., p86.
Burns, C. Richard Cabot and reformation in American medial ethics. Bull History Med 1977; 51:353–368.
Kant, I. The Moral Law: Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. New York: Routledge; 1991.
Freeman, J M, McDonnell, K. Tough Decisions. A Casebook in Medical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press; 1987:156.
Ridley, A. Beginning Bioethics. New York: St. Martin's Press; 1998.
Kagan, S. The Limits of Morality. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989.
Beauchamp, T L, Childress, J F. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.
Veatch, R M. Is there a common morality? Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2003; 13:189–192.
Turner, L. Zones of consensus and zones of conflict: questioning the “common morality” presumption in bioethics. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2003; 13:193–201.
Beauchamp, T. A defense of the common morality. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 2003; 13:259–274.
Macklin, R. Against Relativism. Cultural Diversity and the Search for Ethical Universals in Medicine. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999.
Aksoy, S, Tenik, A. The four principles of bioethics as found in 13th century Muslim scholar Mawlana's teachings. BMC Medical Ethics 2002; 3:4–10.
Fleischman, A R, Chervanek, F A, McCullough, L B. The physician's moral obligations to the pregnant woman, the fetus, and the child. Semin Perinatol 1998; 22:184–188.
Campbell, D E, Fleischman, A R. Limits of viability: dilemmas, decisions and decision makers. Am J Perinatol 2001; 18:117–128.
Yen, B M, Schneiderman, L J. Impact of pediatric ethics consultations on patients, families, social workers, and physicians. J Perinatol 1999; 19:373–378.
Meyers, C. Cruel choices: autonomy and critical care decision making. Bioethics 2004; 18:104–119.
Kopelman, L M. Children and bioethics: uses and abuses of the best interests standard. J Med Philos 1997; 22:213–217.
Kopelman, L M. The best interests standard as threshold, ideal, and standard of reasonableness. J Med Philos 1997; 22:271–289.
Holmes R L. Consent and decisional authority in children's health care decision making: a reply to Dan Brock. In: Kopelman, L M, Moskop, J C, eds. Children and Health Care: Moral and Social Issues. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1989:218–220.
Chervanak, F, McCullough, L B. Nonagressive obstetric management. JAMA 1989; 261:3439–3440.
Jonsen A R, Garland M J. A moral policy for life/death decisions in the intensive car nursery. In: Jonsen, A R, Garland, M J, eds. Ethics of Newborn Intensive Care. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of Governmental Studies; 1976:148.
Feinberg, J. Wrongful life and the counterfactual element in harming. Soc Philos Policy 1987; 4:3–36.
Paris, J J. Parental right to determine whether to use aggressive treatment for an early gestational age infant: the Messenger case. Med Law 1997; 16:679–685.
Sklansky, M. Neonatal euthanasia: moral considerations and criminal liability. J Med Ethics 2001; 27:5–11.
Foot P. Euthanasia. In: Ladd, J, ed. Ethical Issues Relating to Life and Death. New York: Oxford University Press; 1979:30.
Lewitt, E MBaker, L S, Corman, H, Shiono, P H. The direct cost of low birth weight. The Future of Children 1995; 5:40–58.
Lantos, J D, Mokalla, M, Meadow, W. Resource allocation in neonatal and medical ICUs. Epidemiology and rationing at the extremes of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:185–189.
Brody, H. Ethical Discussions in Medicine. Boston: Little Brown; 1976:66.
Koop, C E. The handicapped child and his family. Linacre Quarterly 1981; 48:22–32.
Papal encyclical. Evangelium vitae, para 65, 1994.
President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioural Research: Deciding to Forgo Life-Sustaining Treatment. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1983:85. Publication No 20402.
McCormick, R. To save or let die. The dilemma of modern medicine. JAMA 1974; 229:172–176.
Glover, J. Causing Death and Saving Lives. London: Penguin; 1990:42.
Kuhse, H. Why killing is not always – and sometimes better than letting die. Cambridge Q Hlthcare Ethics 1998; 7:371–374.
Lorber, J. Results of treatment of myelomeningocele: an analysis of 524 unselected cases with special reference to possible selection for treatment. Dev Med Child Neurol 1971; 13:279–303.
R v Arthur, 13 BMLR 1 (1981).
Englehardt H T. Ethical issues in aiding the death of young children. In: Mappes, T A, DeGrazia, D, eds. Biomedical Ethics. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.; 1996:408–415.
Singer, P. Writings on an Ethical Life. New York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc.; 2000:128.
Tooley M. Decisions to terminate life and the concept of a person. In: Ladd, J, ed. Ethical Issues Relating to Life and Death. New York: Oxford University Press; 1979:64–65.
Walter, J W. Approaches to ethical decision-making in the neonatal care unit. AJDC 1988; 142:825–830.
Harris, J. The concept of a person and the value of life. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9:293–308.
Shaw, A B. Intuitions, principles, and consequences. J Med Ethics 2001; 27:16–19.
Singer, P. Practical Ethics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1993:87.
Higginson, R. Life and death and the handicapped newborn: a review of the ethical issues. Ethics Med 1987; 3:45–48.
Kilmer, J F, Miller, B, Pellegrino, E D. Dignity and Dying. Grand Rapids: William B Eerdmans; 1996:98–99.
Nitschke, J B, Nelson, E E, Rusch, B D. Orbitofrontal cortex tracks positive mood in mothers viewing pictures of their newborn infants. Neuroimage 2004; 21:583–592.
Bartels, A, Zeki, S. The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love. Neuroimage 2004; 21:1155–1166.
Wocial, L. Moral distress – the role of ethics consultation in the NICU. Bioethics Forum 2002; 18:15–23.
Beauchamp, T L. The failure of theories of personhood. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1999; 9:309–324.
Robertson, J A. Involuntary euthanasia of defective newborns. A legal analysis. Stanford Law Review 1975; 27:246–261.
The Hastings Center research project on the care of imperiled newborns. Hastings Cent Rep 1987; 17:13–16.
Singer, P. Practical Ethics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1993:395.
Jonsen, A R, Siegler, M, Winslade, W J. Clinical Ethics. A Practical Approach to Ethical Decisions in Clinical Medicine. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002:116.
Ibid., p25.
President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine.
Bridge, P, Bridge, M. The brief life and death of Christopher Bridge. Hastings Cent Rep 1981; 11:19.
Crane, D. The Sanctity of Social Life: Physicians' Treatment of Critically Ill Patients. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 1975:78.
Committee on Bioethics. American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidelines on foregoing life-sustaining medical treatment. Pediatrics 1994; 93:532–536.
Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. The initiation or withdrawal of treatment for high-risk newborns. Pediatrics 1995; 96:362–63.
Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Obstetric Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Perinatal care at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics 1995; 96:974–976.
Hadlock, F P, Harrist, R B, Sharmon, R S. Estimation of fetal weight with the use of head, body, and femur measurements – a prospective study. Am J Obst Gynecol 1985; 151:333–337.
Committee on Bioethics, American Academy of Pediatrics. Ethics and the care of critically ill infants and children. Pediatrics 1996; 98:149–152.
ACOG Practice Bulletin. Perinatal care at the threshold of viability. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2002; 79:181–188.
Lemons, J A, Bauer, C R, Oh, W. Very low birth weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network, January 1995 through December 1996. NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 2001: 107:E1.
MacDonald, H, and the Committee on Fetus and Newborn. American Academy of Pediatrics. Perinatal care at the threshold of viability. Pediatrics 2002; 110: 1024–1027.
Fetus and Newborn Committee, Canadian Paediatric Society; Maternal-Fetal Medicine Committee, Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada. Management of the woman with threatened birth of an infant of extremely low gestational age. Can Med Assoc J 1994; 151:547–553.
Bioethics Committee. Canadian Paediatric Society. Treatment decisions for infants, children, and adolescents. Reference No. B86–01. Available at: http://www.cps,ca/english/statements/B/b86–01.htm (accessed 2005).
Bioethics Committee, Canadian Paediatric Society. Treatment decisions regarding infants, children, and adolescents. Paediatr Child Health 2004; 9:99–103.
Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH). Withholding or Withdrawing Lifesaving Treatment in Children. A Framework for Practice. London: RCPCH; 1997.
Gee, H, Dunn, P. Fetuses and Newborn Infants at the Threshold of Viability. London: British Association of Perinatal Medicine; 2000.
British Medical Association. Withholding and Withdrawing Life Prolonging Medical Treatment. Guidance for Decision Making. London: BMJ Publishing Group; 2001.
Ethical considerations regarding neonatal resuscitation. Recommendation No. 65 of the National Consultative Ethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences, September 14, 2000.
Simeoni, U, Lacroze, V, Leclaire, M, Millet, V. Extreme prematurity: the limits of neonatal resuscitation. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 2001; 6:S 58–63.
The Appleton International Conference: developing guidelines for decisions to forgo life – prolonging medical treatment. J Med Ethics 1992; 18:Supplement 1–24.
Report of the Committee for the Study of Ethical Aspects in the management of newborn infants at the threshold of viability. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1997; 59: 165–168.
German Society for Medical Law. The Einbecker Recommendations. Munich: German Society for Medical Law; 1992:206.
International Guidelines for Neonatal Resuscitation: An excerpt from the guidelines 2000 for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care: International Consensus on Science. Pediatrics 2000: 106:e29–45.
Sauer, P J J and the members of the working group. Ethical dilemmas in neonatology: recommendations of the Ethics Working Group of the CESP (Confederation of the European Specialists in Paediatrics). Eur J Pediatr 2001; 160:364–368.
Mendelson, D, Jost, T S. A comparative study of the law of palliative care and end-of-life treatment. J Law Medicine Ethics 2003; 31:1–23.
McTeer, M A. A role for law in matters of morality. McGill Law J 1995; 40:893–903.
DeVille, K, Hassler, G. Health care ethics committees and the law: uneasy but inevitable bedfellows. HEC Forum 2001; 13:13–31.
Capron, A M. What contributions have social sciences and the law made to the development of policy on bioethics? Daedalus 1999; 128:295–325.
Hart, H L A. Positivism and the separation of law and morals. Harvard Law Rev 1958; 71:593–629.
Medical Ethics: The Right to Survival 1974: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Health of the Senate Committee on Labor and Welfare 93d Cong 2d Sess 26 (1974).
Saw, A, Randolph, J G, Manard, B. Ethical issues in pediatric surgery: a national survey of pediatricians and pediatric surgeons. Pediatrics 1977; 60:588–599.
Waldman, A M. Medical ethics and the hopelessly ill child. J Pediatr 1976; 88:890–892.
Smith, S R. Disabled newborns and the federal child abuse amendments: tenuous protection. Hastings Law J 1986; 37:765–827.
Robertson, J. Involuntary euthanasia of defective newborns: a legal analysis. Stanford Law Rev 1975; 27:213–270.
Union Pacific Railway Co v Bostford, 141 US 250, 251 (1891).
Prince v Massachusetts, 321 US 158, 166 (1944).
Newmark v Williams, 588 A2d 1108, 1117–1118 (DeL 1991).
Branzburg v Hayes, 408 US 665, 700–701 (1972).
Zoski v Gaines, 271 Mich 1, 9, 260 NW, 101–102 (1935).
Roger v Sells, 178 Okla. 103, 105, 61 P2d 1018, 1019–1020 (1936).
Re Hudson, 13 Wash 2d 673, 693–694, 126 P 2d 765, 775–776 (1942).
Paris Adult Theatre I v Slaton, 413 US 49, 65 (1973).
Carey v Population Servs Int'l, 431 US 678, 684–685 (1977).
Wisconsin v Yoder, 406 US 205, 233–234 (1972).
Jehovah's Witnesses v King County Hospital, 278 F Supp 488, 504–505 (WD Wash 1967) Aff'd per curiam, 390 US 598 (1968).
In Re Ivey, 319 So 2d 53, 58–59 (Fla Dist Ct App 1975).
State v Perricone, 37 NJ 463, 475, 181 A 2d 751, 758.
Pence, G E. Classic Cases in Medical Ethics. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.; 1995.
Gustafson, J. Mongolism, parental desires, and the right to life. Perspect Biol Med 1973; 16: 529–534.
Duff, R, Campbell, A. Moral and ethical dilemmas in the special-care nursery. N Engl J Med 1973: 289:890–894.
Lorber, J. Results of treatment of myelomeningocele: an analysis of 524 unselected cases, with special reference to possible selection for treatment. Dev Med Child Neurol 1971; 13:279–303.
Perrachio A. Government in the nursery: new era for Baby Doe cases. Newsday 1983: November 13.
United States Commission on Civil Rights. Medical Discrimination against Children with Disabilities. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 1989:321.
Infant Doe, Re GU 8204–004A (1982); on appeal 52 US LW 3369 (1983).
American Academy of Pediatrics v Heckler, 561 F Supp 395 (DDC 1983).
American Hospital Association v Heckler, 105 SCt 3475 (1985).
Kerr K. An issue of law and ethics. Newsday 1983: October 26.
Weber v Stonybrook Hospital, 60 NY 2d 208 (1983).
Bowen v American Hospital Association, 476 US 610, 106 SCt 3101, 90 L Ed 584 (1986).
Parham v JR, 442 US 584 (1979).
Youngberg v Romeo, 457 US 307 (1982).
Hall, M A, Ellman, I M, Strouse, D S. Health Care Law and Ethics in a Nutshell. St. Paul, Mn: West Group; 1999.
Meisel, A, Cerminara, K L. The Right to Die. The Law of End-of-Life Decision Making. 3rd ed. New York: Aspen Publishers; 2004.
Frader, J E. Baby Doe blinders. JAMA 2000; 284:1143.
Boyle, D, Carlo, W A, Goldsmith, J. Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2001, Public Law No. 107–207. Pediatrics 2003: 111:680–681.
Matter of Hofbauer, 47 NY 2d 648, 652 (1979).
42 USCA 5103 (b) (2) (k) (ⅲ) (West Supp 1985).
Re Seiforth, 309 NY 80, 127 NE 2d 820 (1955).
Re Green, 220 Pa Super Ct 191, 286 A 2d 681 (1971).
In re Christopher I, 131 Cal Rptr 2d 122, 138 (Ct App 2003).
In re Phillip B, 156 Cal Rptr 48 (Ct App) cert denied 445 US 949 (1980).
Custody of a Minor, 379 NE 2d 1053, 1065 (Mass 1978).
In re Rosebush, 491 NW 2d 633, 637 (Mich Ct App 1992).
Morrison v State, 252 SW 2d 97 (Mo Ct App 1952).
State v Perricone, 181 A 2d 751 (NJ 1962).
In re Brooklyn Hosp, 258 NYS 2d 621 (Sup Ct 1965).
In re Clark, 185 NE 2d 128 (CP Ohio 1968).
In re KI, 735 A 2dn448, 454 (DC Ct App 1999).
In re Doe, 418 SE 2d 3 (GA 1992).
In re Nikolas E, 720 A 2d 562 (Me 1998).
In re AMB, 640 NW 2d 262, 295–96 (Mich Ct App 2001).
In re McCauley, 565 NE 2d 411 (Mass 1991).
Commonwealth v Nixon, 761 A 2d 1151 (PA 2000).
In re Hamilton, 657 SW 2d 425 (Tenn Ct App 1983).
In re Steinhaus, a minor, Juv Ct Div Redwood Minn County Ct 1986.
Re KI, 98 FS 1767 (District of Columbia 1999).
Lantos, J D, Miles, S H, Cassel, C K. The Linares affair. Law Med Hlth Care 1989; 17:308–315.
Gross, M. Avoiding anomalous newborns: preemptive abortion, treatment thresholds. And the case of baby Messenger. J Med Ethics 2000; 26:242–248.
People of the State of Michigan v Gregory Messenger. Ingham County Circuit Court, Lansing, MI 94–67694 FH Feb 2 1995.
Johnson v Thompson, 971 F 2d 1487, 1499 (10th Cir 1992).
In Velez v Bethune, 219 Ga APP 679, 466 SE 2d 627 (1995).
In re Jane Doe, 262 Ga 389, 391(2), 393(2) (c), 418 SE 2d 3 (1992).
Parent's “wrongful life” lawsuit against doctors fails. Available at newsmax.com. Thursday, May 30, 2002 (Accessed 2005).
Montalvo v Borkovec, 647 NW 2d 413, 421 (Ct App Wis 2002).
Paris, J J, Goldsmith, J P, Cimperman, M. Resuscitation of a micropremie: the case of MacDonald v Milleville. J Perinatol 1998; 18:302–305.
Lantos, J D, Miles, S H, Silverstein, M D, Stocking, C B. Survival after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in babies of very low birth weight. N Engl J Med 1988; 318:91–96.
Barber v Superior Court, 147 Cal App 3rd 1006, 95 Cal Rptr 484 (1983).
Texas Health and Safety Code 672.004 (1992), repealed by Acts 1999, 76 Leg, Ch 450, 1.05.
Texas Civ Prac and Rem Code 135.001 (1997), repealed by Acts 1999, 76 Leg, Ch450. 1.05.
Texas SB 414, 76th Leg (1997).
Letter from Joseph M Graham, President, Texas Right to Life Committee, to Texas Senator Mike Moncrieff, March 10 1997. Texas Right to Life Committee, Inc. Newsletter; Spring 1997.
Heitman, E, Gremillion, V. Ethics committees under Texas law: effects of the Texas Advanced Directives Act. HEC Forum 2001; 13:82–104.
Texas Health and Safety Code 166.001 (West Supp 2000).
Stolle v Baylor College of Medicine, 981 SW 2d 709 (West 2001).
Hospital Corporation of America v Sidney Ainsley Miller, 36 SW 3d 187 (West 2001).
Fam Code Ann 151.003(a)(6)(Vernon 1996).
Moss v Rishworth, 222SW 225, 226–227 (Tex Comm'n App 1920, holding approved).
Texas Health and Safety Code Ann 166.002(13), 166.031, 166.035 (Vernon Supp 2000).
Texas Pen Code Ann 22.04(a)(b)(1)(Vernon 1996).
Ahearn v State, 588 SW 2d 327, 336–337 (Tex Crim App 1979).
Ronk v State, 544 SW 2d 123, 124–125 (Tex Crim App 1976).
Fuentes v State, 880 2d 857, 860–861 (Tex App-Amarillo 1994).
Texas Fam Code Ann 102.003(a)(5), 105.001(a)(1), 262.201 (c)(Vernon 1996 & Supp 2000).
OG v Baum, 790 SW 2d 839, 840–842 (Tex App-Houston [1st Dist] 1990).
Mitchell v Davis, 205 SW 2d 812, 813–15 (Tex Civ App-Dallas 1947).
In re Cabrera, 381 Pa Super 100, 552 A 2d 1114, 1120 (1989).
Miller v HCA, Supreme Court of Texas No 01–0079 (2003).
Mason, J K, McCall Smith, R A. Law and Medical Ethics. 5th ed. London: Butterworths; 1999:370.
R v Gibbons, 13 Cr App R 134 (1918).
R v Stone, QB 354 (1977).
In Re F (Mental patient: sterilization), 2 AC 1, 55–56 (1990).
Airedale NHS Trust v Bland, AC 789 (1993).
In re J (a minor) (wardship: medical treatment), Fam 33 (1991).
R v Adams, Crim LR 365 (1957).
Montgomery, J. Health Care Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1997:410.
R v Sheppard, AC 394 (1981).
R v Senior, 1 QB 823 (1899).
Re J, 4 ALL ER 614 (1992).
R v Cambridge DHA ex p B, 2 AU ER 129 (1995).
Re B (a minor) (wardship: medical treatment), 1 WLR 1424 (1981).
National Health Service Trust v D, FLR 677 (2000).
National Health Service Trust v D. Med Law Rev 2000; 8:339–335.
ECHR Act 1998 Sch 1 Part 1 Art 2 and 3.
D v UK, 24 EHRR 423 (1997).
Re A (permission to remove child: Human Rights), FLR 225 (CA) (2000).
BBC News. ‘Ill baby should not revived’. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/l/hi/health/3723656.stm (accessed 2005).
Case of Glass v United Kingdom. European Court of Human Rights 9 March 2004.
Case of Child and Family Services of Central Manitoba v RL and SLH, 123 Man R (2d) 135 (1997).
Sneiderman, B. A do not resuscitate order for an infant against parental wishes: a comment on theCase of Child and Family Services of Central Manitoba v RL and SLH. Health Law J 1999; 7:205–231.
B (R) v Children's Aid Society of Metropolitan Toronto, 1 SCR 315 (1995).
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Constitution Act 1982 (79).
R v Latimer, 1 SCR 3 (2001).
CBC News. Petition demands clemency for jailed Robert Latimer. Available at: http://www.canoe.ca/CNEWSLaw0112/13_latimer-cp.html (accessed 2005).
R v Hutty, ALR 689 (1953).
R v Castles, QWN 36 (1969).
Ethics in Clinical Practice Advisory Panel. The ethics of limiting life-sustaining treatment. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (Australia). Canberra; 1988.
F v F The Age. Melbourne, 3 July 1986, p1.
Skene, L. Law and Medical Practice. 2nd ed. Sydney, Lexis Nexis, 2004.
Cattenach v Melchior, HCA 38 (2003).
Secretary Department of Health and Human Services v JWG and SMB, 175 CLR 218 – Marion's Case (1991–1992).
Dalton v Scuthorpe. Unreported decision of Supreme Court of New South Wales, 17 November 1992, 5094 377.
Director General of the Department of Community Services v “BB,” NSWSC 1169 (1999).
Consent to Medical Treatment and Palliative Care Act (1995)(SA) section 17(2).
Mendelson, D, Jost, T S. A comparative study of the law of palliative care and end-of life treatment. J Law Med Ethics 2003; 31:1–23.
LeFlar, R B. Informed consent and patients' rights in Japan. Houston Law Rev 1996; 33:1–112.
Takeda v State, 5 (2) Minshu 582, 1710 Hanrei Jiho 97, 1031 Hanrei Taimazu 158 (Sup Ct, Feb 29 2000).
Kimura R. Death, dying, and advance Directives in Japan: sociocultural and legal points of view. In: Sass, H-M, Veatch, R M, Kimura, R, eds. Advance Directives and Surrogate Decision Making in Health Care. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; 1998.
McHaffie, H E, Cuttini, M, Brolz-Voit, G. Withholding/withdrawing treatment from neonates: legislation and official guidelines across Europe. J Med Ethics 1999; 25:440–446.
Pretura di Genova 13.11.1991, Gallicia, in Fi 1992, 11.586, Italy.
German Society for Medical Law.
Duguet, A M. Euthanasia and assistance to end life legislation in France. Eur J Hlth 2001; 8:109–123.
Nys, H. Physician involvement in a patient's death: a continental European perspective. Med Law Review 1999; 7:208–246.
Emmanuel, E E. Euthanasia: where the Netherlands leads will the world follow? Brit Med J 2001; 322:1376–377.
Cuttini, M, Casotto, V, Kaminski, M. Should euthanasia be legal? An international survey of neonatal intensive care units staff. Arch Dis Child Fetal N Neonatal Ed 2004; 89:F19–F24.
Sheldon, T. Dutch may relent over euthanasia prosecution. Brit Med J 1996; 312:76–77.
Chao, D V K, Chan, N Y, Chan, W Y. Euthanasia revisited. Family Practice 2002; 19:128–134.
Dorscheidt J H. Assessment procedures regarding end of life decisions in neonatology in the Netherlands. Proceedings of the World Congress on Medical Law; 2004. Sydney, Australia.
T v GR, Regional Court of Utrecht, 11 January 1991.
Heinen A L. End of life: some of the legal dilemmas. Proceedings of the World Congress on Medical Law; 2004. Sydney, Australia.
Report of the consultancy group on the assessment of careful medical practice regarding the end of life of neonates. Assessment as a mirror of medical practice. Publication of the Minister of Health Care, Welfare and Sport, Rijswijk, September 1997.
Rhodes, R, Holzman, I R. The not unreasonable standard for assessment of surrogates and surrogate decisions. Theor Med 2004; 25:367–385.
Diekma, D S. Parental refusals of medical treatment: the harm principle as threshold for state intervention. TheorMed 2004; 25:243–264.
Griesen, G. Meaningful care for babies born after 22, 23, or 24 weeks. Acta Paediatr 2004; 93:153–156.
Serenius, F, Ewald, U, Farooqui, A, Holmgren, P-A, Haakansson, S, Sedin, G. Short-term outcome after active perinatal management at 23–25 weeks of gestation. A study from 2 Swedish perinatal centres. Part 3: neonatal morbidity. Acta Paediatr 2004; 93:1090–1097.
Lorenz, J M. Proactive management of extremely premature infants. Pediatrics 2004; 114:264.
Robertson, J A. Extreme prematurity and parental rights after Baby Doe. Hastings Cent Rep 2004; 34:32–39.
Verhagen, E, Sauer, P J J. The Groningen protocol – euthanasia in severely ill newborns. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 959–962.
Simeoni, U, Vendemmia, M, Rizzotti, A, Gamerre, M. Ethical dilemmas in extreme prematurity: recent answers; more questions. Eur J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 117:S33–S36.
Orfali, K, Gordon, E J. Autonomy gone awry: a cross cultural study of parents' experiences in neonatal intensive care units. Theor Med 2004; 25:329–365.
Hall, M A. The importance of trust for ethics, law, and public policy. Cambe Q Healthc Ethics 2005; 14:156–167.
Sherlock, R. Reasonable men and sick human beings. Am J Med 1986; 80:2–4.
Clark, C C. Trust in Medicine. J Med Philos 2002; 27: 11–29
Marlow, N, Wolke, D, Bracewell, M A, Samara, M, for the EPIcure Study Group. Neurologic and developmental disability at six years after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:9–19.
Vohr, B, Allen, M. Extreme prematurity – the continuing dilemma. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:71–72.
Arias, E, MacDorman, M F, Strobino, D M, Guyer, B. Annual summary of vital statistics – 2002. Pediatrics 2003; 112:1215–1230.
Meadow, W, Lee, G, Lin, K, Lantos, J. Changes in mortality for extremely low birth weight infants in the 1990's: implications for treatment decisions and resource use. Pediatrics 2004; 113:1223–1229.
Mongelli, M, Wilcox, M, Gardosi, J. Estimating the date of confinement: ultrasonographic biometry versus certain menstrual dates. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174:278–281.
Leviton, A, Blair, E, Damman, O, Allred, E. The wealth of information conveyed by gestational age. J Pediatr 2005; 146:123–127.
Hollier, L M. Preventing preterm birth: what works, what doesn't. Obstet Gynecol Survey 2005; 60:124–131.
St John, E B, Nelson, K G, Cliver, S P. Cost of neonatal care according to gestational age at birth and survival status. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182:170–175.
Gold, R, Connell, F A, Heagerty, P, Bezruchka, S, Davis, R, Cawthon, M L. Income inequality and pregnancy spacing. Soc Sci Med 2004; 59:1117–1126.
Papiernik, E, Goffinet, F. Prevention of preterm births, the French experience. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2004; 47:755–767.
Lackritz E. Meeting the Challenges of Prematurity: CDC Prevention Efforts. Hearings before the Subcommittee on Children and Families, Committee on Health Education, Labor and Pensions, US Senate, May 12, 2004. Available at: http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t040512b.html (accessed 2005).
Hitti, J, Tarczy-Hornoch, P, Murphy, J, Hillier, S L, Aura, J, Eschenbach, D A. Amniotic fluid infection, cytokines, and adverse outcome among infants born at 34 weeks' gestation or less. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 98:1080–1088.
Macones, G, Parry, S, Elkousy, M, Clothier, B, Ural, S H, Strauss, J F. A polymorphism in the promoter region of TNF and bacterial vaginosis: preliminary evidence of gene-environment interaction in the etiology of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 190:1504–1508.
Romero, R, Chaivorapopngsa, T, Kuivaniemi, H, Tromp, G. Bacterial vaginosis, the inflammatory response and the risk of preterm birth: a role for genetic epidemiology in prevention of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 190:1509–1519.
Dole, N, Savitz, D A, Hertz-Picciato, I. Maternal stress and preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol 2003; 157:14–24.
Mozurkewich, E L, Luke, B, Avni, M, Wolf, F M. Working conditions and adverse pregnancy outcome: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2000; 95:623–635.
Blondel, B, Kaminski, M. Trends in the occurrence, determinants, and consequences of multiple births. Semin Perinatol 2002; 26:239–249.
March of Dimes. Premature birth rate in US reaches historic high. Available at: http://www.marchofdimes.com/aboutus/1061_10763.asp (accessed 2005).
March of Dimes. Premature Birth Rates. Available at: http://www.marchofdimes.com/files/ptbrates_bystate_final2.pdf (accessed 2005).
Cockey, C D. Prematurity hits record high. AWHONN Lifelines 2004; 8:104–111.
Russell, R B, Petrini, J R, Damus, K, Mattison, D R, Schwarz, R H. The changing epidemiology of multiple births in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 101:129–135.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of assisted reproductive technology – United States 1996 and 1998. MMWR Weekly 2002; 51:97–101.
Zhang, J, Meikle, S, Grainger, D A, Trumble, A. Multifetal pregnancy in older women and perinatal outcomes. Fertil Steril 2002; 78:562–568.
Wadhara, P D, Culhane, J F, Rauh, V. Stress, infection, and preterm birth: a biobehavioral perspective. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001; 15 (Suppl 2):17–29.
Kramer, M S, Goulet, L, Lydon, J. Socioeconomic disparities in preterm birth: causal pathways and mechanisms. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001; 15 (Suppl 2):104–123.
Vintzileos, A M, Ananth, C V, Smulian, J C, Scorza, W E. The impact of prenatal care on preterm births among twin gestations in the United States, 1989–2000. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189:818–823.
Joseph, K S. Marcoux, S, Liu, S. Changes in stillbirth and infant mortality associated with increase in preterm birth among twins. Fetal and Infant Health Study Group of the Canadian Perinatal Surveillance System. Pediatrics 2001; 108:1055–1061.