Before the mid-fifteenth century, the Christian and Islamic governments of Europe had restricted the architecture and design of synagogues and often prevented Jews from becoming architects. With the socio-political changes that occurred during the course of the early modern period, synagogue architecture experienced a renaissance of design – a phenomenon reflected in the wider tolerance of Jews themselves. Stiefel examines the relationships between Jews and gentiles, and between separate Jewish groups, as well as looking at the growth of urbanization and globalization. In doing so he presents a study of the material culture and religious architecture that this era produced.