Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-12T18:30:30.628Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
Series:   Elements in Child Development

The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 November 2020

Robert J. Sternberg
Robert J. Sternberg
Affiliation:
Cornell University

Summary

In this Element, I first introduce intelligence in terms of historical definitions. I show that intelligence, as conceived even by the originators of the first intelligence tests, Alfred Binet and David Wechsler, is a much broader construct than just scores on narrow tests of intelligence and their proxies. I then review the major approaches to understanding intelligence and its development: the psychometric (test-based), cognitive and neurocognitive (intelligence as a set of brain-based cognitive representations and processes), systems, cultural, and developmental. These approaches, taken together, present a much more complex portrait of intelligence and its development than the one that would be ascertained just from scores on intelligence tests. Finally, I draw some take-away conclusions.
Get access

Keywords

intelligencechild developmenthuman abilitiesindividual differencessuccessful intelligence
Type
Element
Information
Series: Elements in Child Development
Online ISBN: 9781108866217
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication: 03 December 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Arlin, P. K. (1975). Cognitive development in adulthood: A fifth stage? Developmental Psychology, 11(5), 602–606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.11.5.602Google Scholar
Azuma, H., & Kashiwagi, K. (1987). Descriptions for an intelligent person: A Japanese study. Japanese Psychological Research, 29(1), 17–26.Google Scholar
Bardon, A. (2019). The truth about denial: Bias and self-deception in science, politics, and religion. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916), The development of intelligence in children (E. S. Kite, trans). Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Boring, E. G. (1923). Intelligence as the tests measure it. New Republic, 36, 35–37.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. (2020). Intelligence in infancy. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 124–154). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Colombo, J. (2012). Infant cognitive functioning and mental development. In Pauen, S. (Ed.), Early childhood development and later achievement (pp. 118–147). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Putnick, D. L. (2019). The architecture of the child mind. Routledge.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Sigman, M. D. (1986). Continuity in mental development from infancy. Child Development, 57(2), 251–274.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., & Esposito, G. (2017). Continuity and stability in development. Child Development Perspectives, 11(2), 113–1199.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (2009). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brown, A. L., & Ferrara, R. A. (1985). Diagnosing zones of proximal development. In Wertsch, J. V. (Ed.). Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 273–305). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1987). Beyondism: Religion from science. Praeger.Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J. (1996). On intelligence: A bioecological treatise on intellectual development (expanded ed.). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J., & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1985). “Don’t forget to take the cupcakes out of the oven”: Prospective memory, strategic time-monitoring, and context. Child Development, 56(1), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130182Google Scholar
Ceci, S. J., & Roazzi, A. (1994). The effects of context on cognition: Postcards from Brazil. In Sternberg, R. J. & Wagner, R. K. (Eds.), Mind in context: Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence (pp. 74–101). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chappell, B. (2020, May 21). US could have saved 36,000 lives if social distancing started 1 week earlier: study. NPR, www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/21/860077940/u-s-could-have-saved-36–000-lives-if-social-distancing-started-1-week-earlier-stGoogle Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Society, culture, and person: A systems view of creativity. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), The nature of creativity (pp. 325–339). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Dasen, P. (1984). The cross-cultural study of intelligence: Piaget and the Baoule. International Journal of Psychology, 19(4–5), 407–434.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Whalley, L. J., & Starr, J. M. (2009). A lifetime of intelligence: Follow-up studies of the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M. C., Starr, J. M., Whalley, L. J., & Fox, H. C. (2004). The impact of childhood intelligence on later life: Following up the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 130–147.Google Scholar
Demetriou, A. (Ed.), (1988). The neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Toward an integration. North-Holland.Google Scholar
Demetriou, A., (2000). Organization and development of self-understanding and self-regulation: Toward a general theory. In Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P. R., & Zeidner, M. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 209–251). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Detterman, D. K., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (1982). How and how much can intelligence be increased? Ablex.Google Scholar
Ellingsen, V. J., & Engle, R. W. (2020). Cognitive approaches to intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Human intelligence: An introduction (pp. 104–138). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Abrams, L. S., Masten, A. S., Sternberg, R. J., Tottenham, N., & Frankenhuis, W. E. (2020). Hidden talents in harsh environments. Development and Psychopathology 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000887.Google Scholar
Engle, R. W, & Kane, M. J. (2004). Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. In Ross, B. H (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 44, pp. 145–199). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ericsson, A. & Poole, R. (2017). Peak: Secrets from the new science of expertise. Eamon/Dolan/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Fagan, J. F., Holland, C. R., & Wheeler, K. (2007). The prediction, from infancy, of adult IQ and achievement. Intelligence, 35(3), 225–231.Google Scholar
Fagan, J. F., & Singer, L T. (1983). Infant recognition memory as a measure of intelligence. In Lipsitt, L. P. (Ed.), Advances in infancy research (Vol. 2, pp. 31–79). Ablex Publishers.Google Scholar
Faulkner, W. (2012). Requiem for a nun. Vintage.Google Scholar
Feuerstein, R. (1979). The dynamic assessment of retarded performers: The Learning Potential Assessment Device theory, instruments, and techniques. University Park Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, K. W. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: The control and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 87(6), 477–531.Google Scholar
Fischer, K. W., & Rose, S. P. (1994). Dynamic development of coordination of components in brain and behavior: A framework for theory and research. In Dawson, G. & Fischer, K. W. (Eds.), Human behavior and the developing brain (pp. 3–66). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 171–191.Google Scholar
Flynn, R. J. (2012). Are we getting smarter? Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Flynn, J. R. (2016). Does your family make you smarter? Nature, nurture, and human autonomy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frensch, P. A., & Sternberg, R. J. (1989). Expertise and intelligent thinking: When is it worse to know better? In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (Vol. 5, pp. 157–188). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Frey, M. C., & Detterman, D. K. (2004). Scholastic assessment or g? The relationship between the Scholastic Assessment Test and general cognitive ability. Psychological Science, 15(6), 373–378.Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1869/1892/1962). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Macmillan/Fontana.Google Scholar
Galton, F. (1883/1907/1973). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. AMS PressGoogle Scholar
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (rev. ed.). Basic Books.Google Scholar
Garrett, B. (2020, May 3). We should all be preppers. The Atlantic, www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/05/we-should-all-be-preppers/611074/Google Scholar
Gelman, S. A., & DeJesus, J. M. (2020). Intelligence in childhood. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 155–180). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Goldberg, M. (2020, June 22). America is too broken to fight the coronavirus. New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2020/06/22/opinion/us-coronavirus-trump.html?action=click&module=Opinion&pgtype=Homepage.Google Scholar
Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Greenfield, P. M. (2020). Historical evolution of intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 916–939). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., & Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Dynamic testing. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 75–111.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., & Sternberg, R. J. (2001). Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence as predictors of self-reported adaptive functioning: A case study in Russia. Intelligence, 29, 57–73.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., Meier, E., Lipka, J., Mohatt, G., Yanez, E., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Academic and practical intelligence: A case study of the Yup’ik in Alaska. Learning and Individual Differences, 14, 183–207.Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., Ruzgis, P., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.) (1997). Psychology in Russia: Past, present, future. Nova Science.Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Guilford, J. P. (1988). Some changes in the structure-of-intellect model. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 1–4.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J. (2016). The neuroscience of intelligence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J. (2020). Biological approaches to intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Human intelligence: An introduction (pp. 139–173). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J., Karama, S., Leyba, L., & Jung, R. E. (2009). MRI assessment of cortical thickness and functional activity changes in adolescent girls following three months of practice on a visual-spatial task. BMC Research Notes, 2, 174. http://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-2-174.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J., Siegel, B. V., Nuechterlein, K. H., Hazlett, E., Wu, J. C., Paek, J., … & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1988). Cortical glucose metabolic-rate correlates of abstract reasoning and attention studies with positron emission tomography. Intelligence, 12(2), 199–217.Google Scholar
Haier, R. J., Siegel, B. V., Tang, C., Abel, L., & Buchsbaum, M. S. (1992). Intelligence and changes in regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate following learning. Intelligence, 16(3–4), 415–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(92)90018-M.Google Scholar
Hall, S. (2015, October 26). Exxon knew about climate change almost 40 years ago. Scientific American, www.scientificamerican.com/article/exxon-knew-about-climate-change-almost-40-years-ago/Google Scholar
Hedlund, J. (2020). Practical intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 736–755). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Henig, R. M. (2020, April 8). Experts warned of a pandemic decades ago. Why weren’t we ready? National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/04/experts-warned-pandemic-decades-ago-why-not-ready-for-coronavirus/#closeGoogle Scholar
Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. Free Press.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C. (2020a). Intelligence in adulthood. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 181–204). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C. (2020b). Lifespan development of intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Human intelligence: An introduction (2nd ed., pp. 279–313). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hilt, P. J. (1997, August 15). Racism accusations and award is delayed. New York Times, www.nytimes.com/1997/08/15/us/racism-accusations-and-award-is-delayed.htmlGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L., & Knapp, J. R. (1973). On the subjective character of the empirical base of Guilford’s structure-of-intellect model. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 33–43.Google Scholar
Hughes, V. (2014, March 5). Epigenetics: The sins of the father. Nature, 507, www.nature.com/news/epigenetics-the-sins-of-the-father-1.14816Google Scholar
Hunt, E. B., Lunneborg, C., & Lewis, J. (1975). What does it mean to be high verbal? Cognitive Psychology, 7, 194–227.Google Scholar
“Intelligence and its measurement”: A symposium (1921). Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 123–147, 195–216, 271–275.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor. Praeger-Greenwood.Google Scholar
Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. J. (2007). The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: Converging neuroimaging evidence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30(2), 135–154.Google Scholar
Kaufman, A. S., Schneider, W. J., & Kaufman, J. C. (2020). Psychometric approaches to studying intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Human intelligence: An introduction (pp. 67–103). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Knopik, V. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., DeFries, J. M., & Plomin, R. (2016). Behavioral genetics (7th ed.). Worth.Google Scholar
Koenig, K.A., Frey, M.C. & Detterman, D.K. (2008). ACT and general cognitive ability. Intelligence, 36, 153–160.Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. S. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions (50th anniversary ed.). University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Labouvie-Vief, G. (1980). Beyond formal operations: Uses and limits of pure logic in life-span development. Human Development, 23, 141–161.Google Scholar
Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in practice. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lidz, C. S. (1991). Practitioner’s guide to dynamic assessment. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Locke, S. F. (2008, September 11). Was the dinosaurs’ long reign on Earth a fluke? Scientific American, www.scientificamerican.com/article/was-the-dinosaurs-long-reign-a-fluke/Google Scholar
Lutz, C. (1985). Ethnopsychology compared to what? Explaining behaviour and consciousness among the Ifaluk. In White, G. M. & Kirkpatrick, J. (Eds.), Person, self, and experience: Exploring Pacific ethnopsychologies (pp. 35–79). University of California Press.Google Scholar
Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. PNAS, 97(8), 4398–4403, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.070039597Google Scholar
Malone, T. W., & Woolley, A. W. (2020). Collective intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed., pp. 780–801). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Conner, A. (2014). Clash: How to thrive in a multicultural world. Plume.Google Scholar
Marquie, J. C., Duarte, L. R., Bessieres, P., Dalm, C., Gentil, C., & Ruidavets, J. B. (2010). Higher mental stimulation at work is associated with improved cognitive functioning in both young and older workers. Ergonomics, 53(11), 1287–1301. http://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2010.519125.Google Scholar
McCall, R. B. (1994). What process mediates prediction of childhood IQ from infant habituation and recognition memory? Speculations on the roles of inhibition and rate of information processing. Intelligence, 18, 107–125.Google Scholar
McCarthy, C. (2007). The road. Vintage.Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S. (2005). The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: Past, present, and future. In Flanagan, D. P. & Harrison, P. L. (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, issues (2nd ed. pp. 136–181). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moreno, J. E. (2020, June 20). Most Trump rally attendees opt not to wear face masks. The Hill, https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/503752-most-trump-rally-attendees-opt-not-to-wear-face-masksGoogle Scholar
Murray, C. (2020). Human diversity: The biology gender, race, and class. Twelve.Google Scholar
Nuñes, T. (1994). Street intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human intelligence (Vol. 2, pp. 1045–1049). Macmillan.Google Scholar
Okagaki, L., & Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Parental beliefs and children’s school performance. Child Development, 64(1), 36–56.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of intelligence. Littlefield Adams.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Knopik, V. S., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2013). Behavioral genetics (6th ed.). Worth.Google Scholar
Poole, F. J. P. (1985). Coming into social being: Cultural images of infants in Bimin-Kuskusmin folk psychology. In White, G. M. & Kirkpatrick, J. (Eds.). Person, self, and experience: Exploring Pacific ethnopsychologies (pp. 183–244). University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ruzgis, P. M & Grigorenko, E. L. (1994). Cultural meaning systems, intelligence and personality. In Sternberg, R. J. and Ruzgis, P. (Eds.). Personality and intelligence (pp. 248–270). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sackett, P. R., Shewach, O. R., & Dahlke, J. A. (2020). The predictive value of general intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Human intelligence: An introduction (pp. 381–414). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental exercises and mental aging: Evaluating the validity of the “use it or lose it” hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 68–87.Google Scholar
Schliemann, A. D., & Magalhües, V. P. (1990). Proportional reasoning: From shops, to kitchens, laboratories, and, hopefully, schools. Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Oaxtepec, Mexico.Google Scholar
Schooler, C., & Kaplan, L. J. (2009). How those who have, thrive: Mechanisms underlying the well-being of the advantaged later in life. In Bosworth, H. B. & Hertzog, C. (Eds.), Aging and cognition: Research methodologies and empirical advantages (pp. 121–141). American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Serpell, R. (1996). Cultural models of childhood in indigenous socialization and formal schooling in Zambia. In Hwang, C. P. & Lamb, M. E. (Eds), Images of childhood. (pp. 129–142). Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Serpell, R. (2002). The embeddedness of human development within sociocultural context: Pedagogical, and political implications. Social Development, 11(2) 290–295.Google Scholar
Simberloff, D. (N.D.) A modern mass extinction? PBS: Evolution. www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/extinction/massext/statement_03.htmlGoogle Scholar
Smithsonian Institution (2018, September 14). Survival of the adaptable: What does it mean to be human? https://humanorigins.si.edu/research/climate-and-human-evolution/survival-adaptableGoogle Scholar
Spearman, C. (1904). “General intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 201–292.Google Scholar
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1977a). Component processes in analogical reasoning. Psychological Review, 84, 353–378.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1977b). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning: The componential analysis of human abilities. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1983). Components of human intelligence. Cognition, 15, 1–48.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J (1990). Metaphors of mind. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful intelligence. Plume.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1998a). Abilities are forms of developing expertise. Educational Researcher, 27(3), 11–20.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1998b). Cupid’s arrow: The course of love through time. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1998c). The dialectic as a tool for teaching psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 177–180.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1998d). Principles of teaching for successful intelligence. Educational Psychologist, 33, 65–72.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1999a). A dialectical basis for understanding the study of cognition. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), The nature of cognition (pp. 51–78). The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1999b). Intelligence as developing expertise. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24, 359–375.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1999c). A propulsion model of types of creative contributions. Review of General Psychology, 3, 83–100.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Culture and intelligence. American Psychologist, 59(5), 325–338.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Intelligence and culture. In Kitayama, S. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Hand of cultural psychology (pp. 547–568). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2010). College admissions for the 21st century. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2012). Intelligence in its cultural context. In Gelfand, M., Chiu, C.-Y, and Hong, Y.-Y (Eds.), Advances in cultures and psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 205–248). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2013). Teaching for wisdom. In David, S., Boniwell, I., & Ayers, A. C. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of happiness (pp. 631–643). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2016). What universities can be: A new model for preparing students for active concerned citizenship and ethical leadership. Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2017). ACCEL: A new model for identifying the gifted. Roeper Review, 39 (3), 139–152. www.tandfonline.com/eprint/kSvRMFf9R8tAJPDRfXrJ/full.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2019a). Introduction to the Cambridge Handbook of Wisdom: Race to Samarra: The critical importance of wisdom in the world today. In Sternberg, R. J. & Glueck, J. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of wisdom (pp. 3–9). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2019b). Is gifted education on the right path? The ACCEL model of giftedness. In Sisk, D., Wallace, B., & Senior, J. (Eds.), Hand of gifted education (pp. 5–18). Sage.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2019c). A theory of adaptive intelligence and its relation to general intelligence. Journal of Intelligence, https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence7040023.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.) (2020). Cambridge handbook of intelligence (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (in press). Adaptive intelligence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Davidson, J. E. (1999). Insight. In Runco, M. & Pritzker, S. R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of creativity (Vol. 2, pp. 57–69). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2001). All testing is dynamic testing. Issues in Education, 7(2), 137–170.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2002). Dynamic testing. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2007). Teaching for successful intelligence (2nd ed.). Corwin Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Hedlund, J. (2002). Practical intelligence, g, and work psychology. Human Performance, 15(1/2), 143–160.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Suben, J. (1986). The socialization of intelligence. In Perlmutter, M. (Ed.), Perspectives on intellectual development: Vol. 19. Minnesota symposia on child psychology (pp. 201–235). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & The Rainbow Project Collaborators (2006). The Rainbow Project: Enhancing the SAT through assessments of analytical, practical and creative skills. Intelligence, 34(4), 321–350.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (2010). Educational psychology (2nd ed.). Pearson/Merrill.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Bonney, C. R., Gabora, L, & Merrifield, M. (2012). WICS: A model for college and university admissions. Educational Psychologist, 47(1), 30–41.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Conway, B. E., Ketron, J. L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People’s conceptions of intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 37–55.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Forsythe, G. B., Hedlund, J., Horvath, J., Snook, S., Williams, W. M., Wagner, R. K., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2000). Practical intelligence in everyday life. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., Ferrari, M., & Clinkenbeard, P. (1999). A triarchic analysis of an aptitude–treatment interaction. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 15(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Kidd, K. K. (2005). Intelligence, race, and genetics. American Psychologist, 60(1), 46–59.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., Ngorosho, D., Tantufuye, E., Mbise, A., Nokes, C., Jukes, M., & Bundy, D. A. (2002). Assessing intellectual potential in rural Tanzanian school children. Intelligence, 30, 141–162.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Jarvin, L., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2009). Teaching for wisdom, intelligence, creativity, and success. Corwin.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2008). Applied intelligence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Kaufman, J. C., & Pretz, J. E. (2002). The creativity conundrum: A propulsion model of kinds of creative contributions. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Nokes, K., Geissler, P. W., Prince, R., Okatcha, F., Bundy, D. A., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2001). The relationship between academic and practical intelligence: A case study in Kenya. Intelligence, 29, 401–418.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., Williams, W. M., & Horvath, J. A. (1995). Testing common sense. American Psychologist, 50(11), 912–927.Google Scholar
Super, C.M., & Harkness, S. (1982). The development of affect in infancy and early childhood. In Wagner, D. & Stevenson, H. (Eds.). Cultural perspectives on child development (pp. 1–19). W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9, 545–569.Google Scholar
Super, C. M & Harkness, S. (1993). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. In Pierce, R. A., Black, M. A., (Eds.). Life-span development: A diversity reader, (pp. 61–77). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Thomson, G. H. (1916). A hierarchy without a general factor. British Journal of Psychology, 8, 271–281.Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Times Editorial Board (2020, April 21). Los Angeles Times, www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2020-04-21/live-free-or-die-isnt-a-hypothetical-choice-in-a-pandemicGoogle Scholar
Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2009). Differentiation of cognitive abilities across the lifespan. Developmental Psychology, 45(4), 1097–1118. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0015864Google Scholar
Visser, B. A., Ashton, M. C., & Vernon, P. A. (2006). Beyond g: Putting multiple intelligence theory of the test. Intelligence, 34, 487–502.Google Scholar
Von Stumm, S., & Plomin, R. (2015). Socioeconomic status and the growth of intelligence from infancy through adolescence. Intelligence, 48, 30–36. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.10.002.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. (Original work published 1934). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1940). Non-intellective factor in general intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 37, 444–445.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1944). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence. Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Wise, A. (2020, April 15). Trump says the US is past its peak on new coronavirus cases. NPR, www.npr.org/2020/04/15/833444593/watch-white-house-holds-briefing-amid-who-governor-spatsGoogle Scholar
Wissler, C. (1901). The correlation of mental and physical tests. Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, 3(6), 1–62.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, H. (1983). The scientific elite: Nobel laureates’ mutual influences. In Albert, R. S. (Ed.), Genius and eminence: The social psychology of creativity and exceptional achievement (Vol. 5, pp. 241–252). Pergamon.Google Scholar

Save element to Kindle

To save this element to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood
Available formats
×

Save element to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood
Available formats
×

Save element to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

The Nature of Intelligence and Its Development in Childhood
Available formats
×