Hostname: page-component-84b7d79bbc-tsvsl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-26T01:01:47.474Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Impact on composite structures

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 February 2016

G. A. O. Davies
Affiliation:
Department of Aeronautics, Imperial College, London, UK
R. Olsson
Affiliation:
Department of Aeronautics, Imperial College, London, UK

Extract

The problem of impact damage in laminated composite structures, and the consequent reduction in residual strength, has been a topic of continual research for over two decades. The number of journal papers on the subject now runs into four figures and most have been conscientiously reviewed by Abrate(1991, 1994, 1998). This review is not intended to be in the academic tradition, with emphasis on acknowledging the authorship of all the various research initiatives. Instead we present our opinions so that the reader can appreciate our current understanding of the problem, our capability of predicting by analysis, and the scope of the design tools for avoiding structural damage, or at least designing damage tolerant aerospace structures.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Aeronautical Society 2004 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrate, S. Impact on laminated composite materials, Appl Mechs Rev, 1991, 44, (4), pp 155190.Google Scholar
Abrate, S. Impact on laminated composites: recent advances, App Mechs Rev, 1994, (47), (11), pp 517554.Google Scholar
Abrate, S. Localised impact on sandwich structures with laminated facings, Appl Mechs Rev, 1997, (50), (2), pp 6982.Google Scholar
Abrate, S. Impact on Composite Structures, 1998, Camb Univ Press.Google Scholar
Andersen, C.E., Cox, P.A., Johnson, G.R. and Maudlin P.T. A constitutive formulation for anisotropic materials suitable for wave propagation in computer programmes, Computational mechanics, 1994, (15), pp 201223.Google Scholar
Andersen, C.E. Hypervelocity impact, Proc of November (2000) symposium at Galveston, 2001, USA, Int J Impact Engng, (26).Google Scholar
Andersen, C.E. Hypervelocity impact, proc of (2003) symposium at Noordvijk, 2003, Netherlands, Int J Impact Engng, (29).Google Scholar
Asp, L.E., Nilsson, S. and Singh, S. An experimental investigation of the influence of delamination growth on the residual strength of impacted laminates, Composites Part A, 2001, (32), (9), pp (1229)-1235.Google Scholar
Awerbuch, J. and Madhukar, M.S. Notched strength of composite laminates: predictions and experiments — a review, J Reinf Plastics Composites, 1985, (4), (1), pp 3159.Google Scholar
Berbinau, P., Filiou, C. and Soutis, C. Stress and failure analysis of composite laminates with an inclusion under multi-axial compression-tension loading, Appl Compos Mater, 2001, (8) (5), pp 307326.Google Scholar
Bishop, S.M., Bray, D.J., Greenhalgh, E.G., Lahiff, S. and Millson, B. The effect of geometry on the impact performance of composite skin-stringer panels, DRA/SMC/CR941005, 1994, DRA, Farnborough.Google Scholar
Bonet, J. and Kulasegaram, S. A simplified approach to enhance the performance of smooth particle hydrodynamics methods, Appl Maths Communications, 2002, (126), pp 133155.Google Scholar
Bostaph, G.M. and Elber, W. A fracture mechanics analysis for delamination growth during impact in composite plates, in Advances in Aerospace Structures, Materials and Dynamics, A Symposium on Composites, 1983, ASME, Boston, pp 133138.Google Scholar
Bucinell, R.B, Nuismer, R.J. and Koury, L. Response of composite plates to quasi-static impact events, in Composite materials: Fatigue and fracture (third Vol.), 1991, ASTM STP 1110, O’Brien, T.K., (Ed.) ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 528549.Google Scholar
Cairns, D.S. A simple elasto-plastic contact law for composites, J Reinf Plast and Composites, 1991, (10), (4), pp 423433.Google Scholar
Cairns, D.S. and Lagace, P.A. Transient response of graphite/epoxy and Kevlar/epoxy laminates subjected to umpact, AIAA J, 1989, (27), (11), pp (1590)–1596.Google Scholar
Cairns, D.S. and Lagace, P.A. Residual tensile strength of graphite/epoxy and Kevlar/epoxy laminates with impact damage, Composite Materials: Testing and Design, (9th Vol), 1990, ASTM STP 1059, GARBO, S.P., (Ed), ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 4863.Google Scholar
Cairns., D.S., Minguet, P.J. and Abdallah, M.G. Theoretical and experimental response of composite laminates loaded in compression, Compos Struct, 1994, (27), (4), pp 431437.Google Scholar
Cantwell, W.J. and Morton, J. The influence of varying projectile mass on the impact response of CFRP, Compos Struct, 1989, (13), (2), pp 101114.Google Scholar
Cantwell, W.J. and Morton, J. The impact resistance of composite materials: a review, Composites, 1991, (22), (15), pp 347362.Google Scholar
Caprino, G. Residual strength prediction of impacted composite materials, J Compos Matls, 1984, (18), pp 508518.Google Scholar
Cartié, D.D.R. and Irving, P.E. Effect of resin and fibre properties on impact and compression after impact of CFRP, Composites A, 2002, (33), (4), pp 483493.Google Scholar
Chai, H. and Babcock, C.D. Two-dimensional modelling of compressive failure in delaminated laminates, J Compos Matls, 1985, (19), (1), pp. (67)–98.Google Scholar
Chang, F.K. and Chang, K.Y. A progressive damage model for laminated composites containing stress concentrations, J Compos Matls, 1987, (21), (9), pp 834855.Google Scholar
Chattopadhyay, S. and Saxena, R. Combined effects of shear deformation and permanent indentation on the impact response of elastic plates, Int J Solids Struct, 1991, (27), (13), pp (1739)–1745.Google Scholar
Chiem, C.Y. and Liu, Z.G. Proc IMPACT (87), Impact loading and dynamic behaviour of materials, Ed. Oberursel: DGM Informationsgesellshafft, mbH, 1988, (2), pp 579586.Google Scholar
Christoforou, A.P., Swanson, S.R. and Beckwith, S.W. Lateral impact on composite cylinders, Composite Materials: Fatigue and Fracture, 1989, Second volume, ASTM STP 1012, Ed. Lagace, P.A. ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 373386.Google Scholar
Christoforou, A.P. On the contact of a spherical indenter and a thin composite laminate, Compos Struct, 1993, (26), (12) pp 7782.Google Scholar
Chu, C.S. Simple and generalised strength model for damaged composites, J Aerospace Engng, 1988, (1), (3), pp 131141.Google Scholar
Collings, T.A. Transverse compressive behaviour of unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced plastics, Composites, 1974, (5), (3), pp 108116.Google Scholar
Cook, R.D. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 1981, (2)nd edition, J. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Crisfield, M.A., MI, Y., Davies, G.A.O. and Hellweg, H-B. Progressive delamination using interface elements, J Compos Matls, 1998, (32), (14) pp (1246)–1272.Google Scholar
Curtis, J., Hinton, M.J., LI, S., Reid, S.R. and Soden, P.D. Damage deformation and residual burst strength of filament-wound composite tubes subject to impact or quasi-static indentation, Composites B, 2000, (31), (5) pp 419433.Google Scholar
Cvitkovich, M.K., Jackson, W.C. Compressive failure mechanisms in composite sandwich structures, J Am Heli Soc, 1999, (44), (4), pp 260269.Google Scholar
Davidson, B. An experimental investigation of delamination buckling and growth, (31)st AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC, Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conf, Long Beach, CA, 1990. Paper AIAA-90-1023, AIAA.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O. and Robinson, P. Predicting failure by debonding/delamination, in Debonding/delamination of composites, 1992, AGARD Conf Proc (530), AGARD, Neuilly sur Seine, France.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O, Zhang, X., Zhou, G. and Watson, S. Numerical modelling of impact damage, Composites, 1994, (25), (5) pp 342350.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O. and Zhang, X. Impact damage prediction in carbon composite structures, Int J Impact Eng, 1995, (6), (1), pp 149170.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O., Hitchings, D. and Wang, J. Prediction of threshold impact energy for onset of delamination in quasi-isotropic carbon/epoxy composite laminates under low-velocity impact, Compos Sci Technol, 2000, (60), (1), pp 17.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O, Benchmarks for Composites, 2002, NAFEMS Rep R0084, NEL. East Kilbride.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O. and Hitchings, D. The separate roles of fibre damage and delamination in compression-after-impact strength of composite structures, (5)th Euromech solid mechanics conference, 2003, Thessaloniki, Greece.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O, Hitchings, D., Besant, T., Clarke, A. and Morgan, C. Compression after impact strength of composite sandwich panels, Compos Struct, (2004)a, (63), (1), pp 19.Google Scholar
Davies, G.A.O., Hitchings, D. and Ankersen, J. Predicting delamination in modern aerospace composite structures, to be published in Compos Sci Technol, (2004)b.Google Scholar
Donadon, M.V., Hodgkinson, J.M., Falzon, B.G. and Iannucci, L. Impact damage in composite structures manufactured using resin infusion under flexible tooling (RIFT) process, 2004, ECCM (11), Rhodes, Greece.Google Scholar
Dost, E.F., Finn, S.R., Murphy, D.P. and Huisken, A.B. Impact damage resistance of composite fuselage structure, Part (2), Third NASA Advanced Composites Technology Conf, (1) (Pt2), 1993, pp 759787.Google Scholar
Dost, E.F., Ilcewicz, L.B. and Gosse, J.H. Sublaminate stability based modeling of impact-damaged composite laminates, Proc (3)rd Technical Conf Am Soc Composites, Seattle, 1988, pp 354363.Google Scholar
Elber, W. Failure mechanics in low-velocity impacts on thin composite plates, 1983, NASA TP 2152, NASA-Langley, VA.Google Scholar
FällströM, K.E, Lindgren, L.E., Molin, N.E. and Wåhlin, A. Transient bending waves in anisotropic plates studied by hologram interferome-try, J Exp Mech, 1989, (29), (4), pp 409413.Google Scholar
Ferri, R. and Sankar, B.V. Static indentation and low velocity impact tests on sandwich plates, AD, (55), Proc ASME Aerospace Division, ASME, 1997, pp 485490.Google Scholar
Flanagan, G. Two-dimensional delamination growth in composite laminates under compression loading, Composite Materials: Testing and Design (8th Vol), 1988, ASTM STP 1206, (Ed) Whitcomb, J.D., ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 180190.Google Scholar
Godwin, W. and Davies, G.A.O. Impact behaviour of thermoplastic composites, in Composite Material Technology, 1988, Brebbia, C. (Ed) Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, W., Dharan, C.H.K. and Chang, K. Quasi-static and ballistic perforation of carbon fibre composites, Int J Solids Struct, 1995, (32), (1), pp89103.Google Scholar
Gottesman, T. et al Residual strength of impacted composites: analysis and tests, J Compos Technol Research, 1994, (16), (3), pp 244255.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, E.S., Bishop, S., Bray, D., Hughes, D., Lahiff, S. and Millson, B. Characterisation of impact damage in skin-stringer composite structures, Compos Struct, 1996, (36), (3/4), pp 187207.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, E.S., Singh, S. and Roberts, D. Impact damage growth and failure of CFRP skin-stringer panels, 1997, ICCM (11), Brisbane.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, E.S. and Singh, S. Investigation of the failure mechanisms for delamination growth from embedded defects, 1999, ICCM12, Paris, France.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, E.S. et al The effects of defects on the performance of post-buckled CFRP stringer-stiffened panels, Composites Part A, 2003, (34), (7), pp 623633.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, E.S. and Hiley, M. The assessment of novel materials and processes for the impact tolerant design of stiffened composite aerospace structures, Composites part A, 2003, (34), pp 151161.Google Scholar
Groenenboom, P.H.L. Numerical simulation of (2)D and (3)D hypervelocity impact using the SPH option in PAMCRASH, Int J Impact Eng, 1997, (20), pp 309323.Google Scholar
Habib, F.A. A new method for evaluating the residual compression strength of composites after impact, Compos Struct, 2001, (53), (3), pp 309316.Google Scholar
Hawyes, V.J., Curtis, P.T. and Soutis, C. Effect of impact damage on the compressive response of composite laminates, Composites Part A, 2001, (32), (9), pp. (1263)–1270.Google Scholar
Hetherington, J.G. and Rajugopalan, B.P. Investigation into the energy absorbed during ballistic impact of composite armours, Int J Impact Engng, 1991, (11), (1), pp 3340.Google Scholar
Hiermaier, S.J., Reidel, W., Hayhurst, C.J., Clegg, R.A. and Wentzel, C.M. Advanced material models for hypervelocity impact simulation, 1999, ESTEC contract (12400)/97/NL/PA (SC) Final report.Google Scholar
Hull, D. Energy absorption of composite materials under crash conditions, 1982, ICCM (4), Japan.Google Scholar
Hull, D. and Shi, Y.B. Damage mechanism characterisation in composite damage tolerance investigations, Compos Struct, 1993, (23), (2), pp 99120.Google Scholar
Iannucci, L., Duchaene, R., Willows, M. and Degrieck, J.A. Failure modes for the analysis of thin woven glass composite structures under impact loadings, Computers and Structures, 2001, (79), (8), pp 785799.Google Scholar
Iannucci, L. Bird strike impact modelling, in Foreign Object Impact and Energy Absorbing Structures, I Mech E conf, 1998, pp 1129.Google Scholar
Jackson, W.C. and Poe, C.C., The use of impact force as a scale parameter for the impact response of composite laminates, J Compos Technol Res, 1993, (15), (4), pp 282289.Google Scholar
Jeng, S.T., Wang, S.B. and Sheu, L.T. Model for predicting the residual strength of CFRP laminates subject to ballistic impact, J Reinf Plast Compos, 1992, (11), (10), pp (1127)–1141.Google Scholar
Johnson, A.F. Modelling fibre reinforced composites under impact loads, Composites A, 2001, (32), (9), pp (1197)–1206.Google Scholar
Johnson, A.F. and Kohlgruber, D. Design and performance of energy absorbing subfloor structures in aerospace applications, in Materials and Structures for Energy Absorption, 2000, IMechE Seminar 5672, London.Google Scholar
Jupp, J.A. and Britton, J.R. Breaking the chain: returning Concorde to service following the Paris accident – July 2000, Aeronaut J, July 2003, (107), (1073), pp 447458.Google Scholar
Kaczmarek, H. and Maison, S. Comparative ultrasonic analysis of damage in CFRP under static indentation and low-velocity impact. Compos Sci and Technol, 1994, (51), (1), pp 1126.Google Scholar
Kellas, S. An experimental investigation in the energy absorbing performance of composite beam webs for aircraft subfloor applications, 1995, Am Heli Soc, NTS meeting on Rotorcraft Structures, Williamsburg.Google Scholar
Kobayashi, S., Takeda, N., Ogihara, S. and Kobayashi, A. Damage mechanics analysis of transverse cracking evolution in delaminated CFRP laminates, J Reinf Plast and Compos, 1999, (18), (15), pp (1360)–1366.Google Scholar
Kong, C.-W., Hong, C-S. and Kim, C.G. Postbuckling strength of stiffened composite plates with impact damage, AIAA J, 2000, (38), (10), pp (1956)–1964.Google Scholar
Krajcinovic, D. Damage mechanics: accomplishments, trends and needs, Int J Solids Struct, 2000, (37), (12), pp 267277.Google Scholar
Kumar, P. and Rai, B. Delaminations of barely visible impact damage in CFRP laminates, Compos Struct, 1993, (23), (4), pp 313318.Google Scholar
Ladeveze, P.A. A damage computational method for composite structures, Computers and Structures, 1992, (44), (2), pp 7987.Google Scholar
Lagace, P. et al, A preliminary proposition for a test method to measure (impact) damage resistance, J Reinf Compos and Plast, 1993, (12), (5), pp 584601.Google Scholar
Laine, R. and Felici, F. The Giotto dust protective system: testing and numerical analysis of cometry dust impact, ESA Bulletin, 1982, (32).Google Scholar
Lee, S.W.R. and Sun, C.T. A quasi-static penetration model for composite laminates, J Compos Mater, 1993, (27), (3), pp 251271.Google Scholar
Levin, K. Characterization of delamination and fibre fractures in carbon reinforced plastics induced from impact, Mechanical Behaviour of Materials — VI, Kyoto, Proc (6)th Int Conf, Ed. JONO, M., Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1991,1, pp 519524.Google Scholar
Libersky, L.D. and Petschek, A.G. SPH with strength of materials, in Advances in the free Lagrange method, 1993, TREASE, FRITTS and GROWLEY, (Eds) Springer Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
Liu, D. Impact-induced delamination — a view of bending stiffness mismatching, J Compos Matls, 1988, (22), (7), pp 674692.Google Scholar
Loupias, C., Sibeaud, J.M. and Hereil, P.L. Hypervelocity impacts of orbital debris on advanced heat shielding material: comparison of ouranos computations to experimental results, Int J Impact Eng, 1997, (20), (10), pp 545556.Google Scholar
Lucy, L.B. A numerical approach to the testing of the fission hypothesis, Astron J, 1977, (82), pp (1013)–1020.Google Scholar
Melin, L.G. and Schön, . Buckling behaviour and delamination growth in impacted composite specimens under fatigue load: an experimental study, Compos Sci Technol, 2001, (61), (13), pp (1841)–1852.Google Scholar
Mespoulet, S., Hodgkinson, J.M., Matthews, F.L., Hitchings, D. and Robinson, P. Design development and implementation of test methods for through thickness properties of laminated composites, Plastics, Rubber and Composites, 2000, (29), (9), pp 496502.Google Scholar
Mines, R.A.W., Worrall, C.M. and Gibson, A.G. The response of GRP sandwich panels to dropped object impact loading, FRC (90) Fibre Reinforced Composites, 1990, Fourth Int Conf, Proc Inst Mech E, Liverpool, pp 149155.Google Scholar
Mittal, R.K. and Khalili, M.R. Analysis of impact of a moving body on an orthotropic elastic plate, AIAA J, 1994, (32), (4), pp 850856.Google Scholar
Mittal, R.K. A simplified analysis of the effect of transverse shear on the response of elastic plates to impact loading, Int J Solids Struct, 1987, (23), (8), pp (1191)–1203.Google Scholar
Morighan, J.J. Smooth particle hydrodynamics, Ann Rev Astrophysics, 1992, (30), pp 543574.Google Scholar
Navarro, C., Martinez, M.A. Cortes, R. and Sanchez-Galvez, V. Some observations on the normal impact on ceramic faced armours backed by composite plates. Int J Impact Eng, 1993, (13), (1), pp 145156.Google Scholar
Nilsson, K.F., Asp, L.E. and Alpman, J. Delamination and growth at global buckling, First Int Conf on damage and Failure of Interfaces DFI-1, ed Rossmouth, Vienna, 1997, pp 193202.Google Scholar
Nilsson, S. The effect of impact damage on the buckling characteristics of graphite fibre reinforced panels, FFA TN (1994)-26, 1994, The Aeron Res Inst of Sweden, Bromma, Sweden.Google Scholar
Nuismer, R.J. and Whitney, J.M. Uniaxial failure of composite laminates containing stress concentrations, in Fracture mechanics of Composites, 1975, ASTM STP (593).Google Scholar
Nyman, T., Bredberg, A. and Schön, J. Equivalent damage and residual strength for impact damaged structures, J Reinf Plast Compos, 2000, (19), (6), pp 428448.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Impact response of orthotropic composite laminates predicted from a one-parameter differential equation, AIAA J, 1992, (30), (6), pp (1587)–1596.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Impact response of composite laminates — a guide to closed form solutions, FFA TN (1992)-33, 1993, The Aeron Res Inst of Sweden, Bromma, Sweden.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. and Mcmanus, H.L. Improved theory for contact indentation of sandwich panels, AIAA J, 1996, (34), (6), pp (1238)–1244.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. A review of impact experiments at FFA during (1986) to 1998, FFA TN (1999)-08, 1999, The Aeron Res Inst of Sweden, Bromma, Sweden.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Mass criterion for wave controlled impact response of composite plates, Composites Part A, 2000, (31), (8), pp 879887 (Correction in Composites Part A, 32, (2) pp (291)).Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Analytical prediction of large mass impact damage in composite laminates, Composites Part A, 2001, (32), (9), pp (12071215).Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Engineering method for prediction of impact response and damage in sandwich panels, J Sandwich Struct Mater, 2002, (4), (1), pp 8395.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Closed form prediction of peak load and delamination onset under small mass impact, Compos Struct, (2003a), (59), (3), pp 340348.Google Scholar
Olsson, R. Energy criterion for dent growth in sandwich panels. Proc. (6)th Int Conf on Sandwich Structures, CRC Press, Boca Raton, (2003)b, pp 309409.Google Scholar
Olsson, R., Asp, L.E., Nilsson, S. and Sjögren, A. A review of some key developments in the analysis of the effects of impact upon composite structures, Composite Structures: Theory and Practice, 2000, ASTM STP 1383. eds. Grant, P. and Rousseau, C. (EdS) ASTM, West Conshohocken, pp 1228.Google Scholar
Olsson, R.., Iwarsson, J., Melin, L.G., Sjögren, A. and Solti, J. Experiments and analysis of laminates with artificial damage, Compos Sci Techn, 2003, (63), (2), pp 199209.Google Scholar
Poe, C.C. Simulated impact damage in a thick graphite/epoxy laminate using spherical indenters, J Reinf Plast Composites, 1991, (10), (3), pp 293307.Google Scholar
Pritchard, J.C. and Hogg, P.J. The role of impact damage in post-impact compression testing, Composites, 1990, (21), (6), pp 503511.Google Scholar
Richardson, M.O.W. and Wisheart, M.J. Review of low velocity impact properties of composite materials, Composites part A, 1996, (27), pp 1123–31.Google Scholar
Rinaird, O. Examination of indentation damage in sandwich panels, 1995, FFA TN (1995)–36, Bromma, The Aeron Res Inst of Sweden.Google Scholar
Robinson, P. and Davies, G.A.O. Impactor mass and specimen geometry effects in low velocity impact of laminated composites, Int J Impact Engng, 1992, (12), (2), pp 189207.Google Scholar
Rosseau, C.Q., Baker, D.J. and Hethcock, J.D. Parametric study of three-stringer panel compression-after-impact strength, Composite Structures: Theory and Practice, 2000, ASTM STP 1383. Grant, P. and Rousseau, C. (Eds), West Conshohocken, ASTM, pp 72104.Google Scholar
Roudolff, F. Development of delamination models, 1998, ONERA Tech Rep RT (28)/7256 DMSE/Y.Google Scholar
Roylance, D. and Wang, S.S. Penetration mechanics of textile structures in flexible reinforced composites, in Ballistic materials and penetration mechanics, 1980, Elsevier Sci Pub Co, New York.Google Scholar
Sankar, B.V. Contact law for transversely isotropic materials, AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS (26)th Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Orlando FL, Part (1), 1985, pp 516521.Google Scholar
Sankar, B.V. Scaling of low-velocity impact for symmetric composite laminates, J Reinf Plast and Compos, 1992, (11), (3), pp 296309.Google Scholar
Schellekens, J.C.J. and De Borst, R. A non-linear finite element approach for the analysis of mode I free-edge delamination in composites, Int J Solids Struct, 1993, (30), (9), pp (1239)–1253.Google Scholar
Schoeppner, G.A. and Abrate, S. Delamination threshold loads for low velocity impact on composite laminates, Composites A, 2000, (31), (9), pp 903915.Google Scholar
Shipsha, A., Hallström, S. and Zenkert, D. Failure mechanisms and modelling of impact damage in sandwich beams — a (2)D approach: Part I-Experimental investigation, J Sandwich Struct Mater, 2003, (5), (1), pp 3351.Google Scholar
Shivakumar, K.N., Elber, W. and Illg, W. Prediction of impact force and duration due to low velocity impact on circular composite laminates, Trans ASME, J Appl Mech, 1985, (52), (3), pp 674680.Google Scholar
Shivakumar, K.N. and Whitcomb, J.D. Buckling of a sublaminate in a quasi-isotropic composite laminate, J Compos Matls, 1985, (19), (1), pp 218.Google Scholar
Sierakowski, R.L. Strain rate effects in composites, App Mechs Reviews, 1997, (50), (11), pt (1), pp 741761.Google Scholar
Sjögren, A., Krasnikovs, Y. and Varna, J. Experimental determination of elastic properties of impact damage in carbon fibre/epoxy laminates, Composites Part A, 2001, (32), (9), pp (1237)–1242.Google Scholar
Soden, P.D. Indentation of composite sandwich beams, J Strain Anal, 1996, (31), (5), pp 353360.Google Scholar
Soutis, C. and Fleck, N. Static compression failure of carbon fibre T800/924C composite plate with a single hole, J Compos Matls, 1990, (24), (5), pp 536558.Google Scholar
Srinivasan, K., Jackson, W.C., Smith, B.T. and Hinkley, J.A. Characterisation of damage modes in impacted thermoset and thermoplastic composites, J Reinf Plastics and Composites, 1992, (11), (10), pp (1111)–1126.Google Scholar
Starnes, J.H., Rhodes, M.D. and Williams, J.G. Effect of impact damage and holes on the compressive strength of a graphite/epoxy laminate, Non-destructive evaluation and flaw criticality for composite materials, ASTM STP (696), 1979, pp 145171.Google Scholar
Suemasu, H., Keth, S. and Maier, M. Indentation of spherical head indentors on transversely isotropic composite plates, J Compos Matls, 1994, (28), (17), pp (1723)–1739.Google Scholar
Suemasu, H. and Majima, O. Multiple delaminations and their severity in circular axisymmetric plates subjected to transverse loading, J Compos Matls, 1996, (30), (4), pp 441453.Google Scholar
Suemasu, H. and Majima, O. Multiple delaminations and their severity in nonlinear circular plates subjected to concentrated loading, J Compos Matls, 1998, (32), (2), pp 123140.Google Scholar
Swanson, S.R. and Rezaee, H.G. Strength loss in composites from lateral contact loads, Compos Sci and Technol, 1990, (38), (1), pp 4354.Google Scholar
Swanson, S.R. Limits of quasi-static solutions in impact of composite structures, Compos Engng, 1992, (2), (4), pp 261267.Google Scholar
Talreja, R. (Ed) Damage Mechanics of Composite Materials., Composite materials series (9), 1994, Elsevier, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Tamura, H., Iwawaki, M. and Sawaoka, A.B. Quantatative analysis of debris clouds from duralumin and SiC fibre/aluminum – matrix composite bumpers, Int J Impact Eng, 2003, (20), (10), pp 829848.Google Scholar
Tan, T.M. and Sun, C.T. Use of statical indentation laws in the impact analysis of laminated composite plates, Trans ASME, J Appl Mechs, 1985, (52), (1), pp 612.Google Scholar
Taneba, Y., Aoki, M., Fujii, K., Karano, H. and Yasuda, E. Fracture behaviour of CFRPs impacted by a relatively high velocity steel sphere, Int J Impact Engng, 2003, (28), (6), pp 627642.Google Scholar
TSAI, S.U. and Wu, E.M. A general theory of strength for anisotropic materials, J Compos Matls, 1971, (5), pp 5880.Google Scholar
Tsang, P.H.W. and Lagace, P.A. Failure mechanisms of impact-damaged sandwich panels under uniaxial compression, AIAA paper (94)-1396-CP, AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC (35)th Structures, Struct Dyn and Matls Conf, Hilton Head, SC, Pt. (2), 1994, pp 745754.Google Scholar
Türk, M.H. and HooFatt, M.S. Localized damage response of composite sandwich plates, Composites Part B, 1999, (30), (2), pp 157165.Google Scholar
Wang, J. Prediction of post-impact compressive strength of composite laminates using an inhomogeneity model, J Compos Matls, 1999, (33), (24), pp (2226)–2247.Google Scholar
Wardle, B.L. and Lagace, P.A. On the use of quasi-static testing to assess impact damage resistance of composite shell structures, Mechs Composite Matls and Struct, 1998, (5), (1), pp 103121.Google Scholar
Whitney, J.M. and Nuismer, R.J. Stress fracture criteria for laminated composites containing stress concentrations, J Compos Matls, 1974, (18), pp 263265.Google Scholar
Wiggenraad, J.F.M., Zhang, X. and Davies, G.A.O. Impact damage prediction and failure analysis of heavily loaded, blade-stiffened composite wing panels, Compos Struct, 1999, (45), (2), pp 81103.Google Scholar
Wiggenraad, J.F.M., Greenhalgh, E.S. and Olsson, R. Design and analysis of stiffened composite panels for damage resistance and tolerance, Paper (8) 1208, Fifth World Congr Comput Mech, Vienna, 2002, eds Mang, H.A., Rammerstorfer, F.G. and Eberhardsteiner, J (Eds).Google Scholar
Wilkins, M.L. Mechanics of penetration and perforation, Int J Engng Sci, 1978, (16), pp 793807.Google Scholar
Williamson, J.E. and Lagace, P.A. Response mechanisms in the impact of graphite/epoxy honeycomb sandwich panels, Proc Am Soc for Composites, (8)th Technical Conf, Cleveland, OH, 1993, pp 287297.Google Scholar
Wu, E. and Shyu, K. Response of composite laminates to contact loads and relationship to low-velocity impact, J Compos Matls, 1993, (27), (15), pp (1443)–1464.Google Scholar
Wu, E. and Yen, C.S. The contact behaviour between laminated composite plates and rigid spheres, Trans ASME, J Appl Mechs, 1994, (61), (1), pp 6066.Google Scholar
Xiong, Y, Poon, C, Straznicky, P.V., and Vietinghoff, H. A prediction method for the compressive strength of impact damaged composite laminates, Compos Struct, 1995, (30), (4), pp 357367.Google Scholar
Yigit, A.S. and Christoforou, A.P. On the impact between a rigid sphere and a thin composite laminate supported by a rigid substrate, Compos Struct, 1995, (30), (2), pp 169177.Google Scholar
Zaera, R. and Sanchez-Galvet, V. Analytical modelling of normal and oblique ballistic impact on ceramic/metal lightweight armours, Int J Impact Engng, 1998, (21), (3), pp 133148.Google Scholar
Zee, R.H. and Hsieh, C.Y. Energy loss partitioning during ballistic impact of polymer composites, Polymer Composites, 1993, (12), (3), pp 196202.Google Scholar
Zhang, X., Davies, G.A.O. and Hitchings, D. Impact damage with compressive preload and post-impact compression of carbon composite plates, Int J Impact Engng, 1999, (22), pp 485509.Google Scholar
Zhu, G., Goldsmith, W. and Dharan, C.K.H. Penetration of laminated Kevlar by projectiles – analytical model. Int. Jnl. Solids and Structures, 29, (4), pp(421)-(436xs), 1992.Google Scholar
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L. The Finite Element Method, 1989, McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
ZOU, Z., Reid, S.R., LI, S. and Soden, P.D. Application of a delamination model to composite structures, Compos Struct, 2002, (56), (4), pp 375389.Google Scholar
Zukas, J.A. High Velocity Impact Dynamics, 1990, Chapter (9), Wiley Interscience, New York.Google Scholar