Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-m9kch Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-08T00:55:43.926Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Rise of the Migration-Development Nexus in Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1960–2010

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 January 2018

Jean-Philippe Dedieu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

This article aims to analyze the emergence of the migration-development nexus after decolonization in Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. The first section explores the way in which French governmental bodies and NGOs started to frame public policies linking migration and development in the 1960s and 1970s. The second section highlights how developmentalist ideology was mobilized in the 1980s in order to set up return policies in partnership with African governments who were increasingly inclined to control migrants’ monetary remittances. The last section emphasizes how the migration-development nexus was orchestrated to control migratory flows from the late 1980s onwards.

Résumé:

Cet article analyse l’émergence de la connexion migration-développement aux lendemains de la décolonisation en Afrique subsaharienne francophone. La première section explore la manière dont les institutions gouvernementales françaises et les ONGs ont progressivement développé des politiques publiques dans les années 1960 et 1970 liant migration et développement. La deuxième section montre comment l’idéologie développementaliste a été mobilisée dans les années 1980 pour mettre en place des politiques de retour en partenariat avec les gouvernements africains de plus en plus enclins à contrôler les transferts monétaires réalisés par les migrants. La dernière section met l’accent sur la façon dont la connexion migration-développement a été utilisée à partir de la fin des années 1980 pour contrôler les flux migratoires.

Keywords

AfricaFrancemigrationdevelopmentcivil societyhometown associationsHTAsremittancespublic policiesneoliberalism
Type
Articles
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 61 , Issue 1 , April 2018 , pp. 83 - 108
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Actualité-Migrations. 1982. “L’immigration en France en 1981.” December 15.Google Scholar
Actualité-Migrations. 1987. “L’Union générale des travailleurs sénégalais en France.” May 25–June 5.Google Scholar
Adams, Adrian, and So, Jaabe. 1996. A Claim to Land by the River: A Household in Senegal, 1720–1994. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adepoju, Aderanti, Naerssen, Ton van, and Zoomers, Annelies, eds. 2008. International Migration and National Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Viewpoints and Policy Initiatives in the Countries of Origin. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aurillacxe, Michel. 1987. L’Afrique à cœur. Paris: Berger-Levrault.Google Scholar
Avec. 1984a. “Retour au pays: un droit et un choix.” January 27.Google Scholar
Avec. 1984b. “Opération Sahel 1984: Sur la piste, les Renault de l’espoir.” November 30.Google Scholar
Bakewell, Oliver. 2008. “‘Keeping Them in Their Place’: The Ambivalent Relationship Between Development and Migration in Africa.” Third World Quarterly 29 (7): 1341–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakewell, Oliver. 2011. “Migration and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In Migration in the Global Political Economy, edited by Phillips, Nicola, 121–41. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balandier, Georges. 1955. Sociologie des Brazzavilles Noires. Paris: Armand Colin.Google Scholar
Basch, Linda, Schiller, Nina Glick, and Blanc, Cristina Szanton, eds. 1992. Towards a Transnational Perspective on Migration: Race, Class, Ethnicity, and Nationalism Reconsidered. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Bayart, Jean-François. 1984. La Politique africaine de François Mitterrand. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Bayart, Jean-François. 2007. “En finir avec le codéveloppement.” Alternatives Economiques 257: 27.Google Scholar
Bayart, Jean-François. 2009. The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly. Cambridge: Polity.Google Scholar
Berger, Suzanne. 1972. Peasants against Politics: Rural Organization in Brittany, 1911–1967. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bienen, Henry, and Herbst, Jeffrey. 1996. “The Relationship between Political and Economic Reform in Africa.” Comparative Politics 29 (1): 23–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, Richard, et al. 2006. Migration and Development in Africa: An Overview. Cape Town: Idasa.Google Scholar
Bodiguel, Maryvonne. 1975. Les paysans face au progrès. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques.Google Scholar
Bodomo, Adams. 2013. “African Diaspora Remittances Are Better than Foreign Aid Funds.” World Economics 14 (4): 21–28.Google Scholar
Bratton, Michael. 1989. “Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational Life in Africa.” World Politics 41 (3): 407–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and de Walle, Nicolas van. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers. 2005. “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 28 (1): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caisse Centrale de Coopération Economique. 1981. La formation des travailleurs immigrés en vue de leur réinsertion dans l’économie de leur pays d’origine. 1974–1981. Premier bilan du programme français. Paris: Caisse Centrale de Coopération Économique.Google Scholar
Cansot, Michel, and Vialle, Arlette. 1988. “Les dispositifs d’aide à la réinsertion dans le pays d’origine.” Revue française d’administration publique 47: 71–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castles, Stephen. 2004. “Why Migration Policies Fail.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 27 (2): 205–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cerase, Francesco P. 1974. “Expectations and Reality: A Case Study of Return Migration from the United States to Southern Italy.” International Migration Review 8 (2): 245–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chauveau, Jean-Pierre. 1994. “Participation paysanne et populisme bureaucratique. Essai d’histoire et de sociologie de la culture du développement.” In Les associations paysannes en Afrique, edited by Jacob, Jean-Pierre and Delville, Philippe Lavigne, 25–60. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Cimade. 1971. Activités 1967–1970. Paris: Cimade.Google Scholar
Clément, Pierre. 1956. “Formes et valeurs de la vie sociale urbaine.” In Aspects sociaux de l’industrialisation et de l’urbanisation en Afrique au Sud du Sahara, edited by Forde, Darryll, 393–468. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
Commission d’étude de la politique de coopération avec les pays en voie de développement. 1964. La Politique de coopération avec les pays en voie de développement—Rapport Jeanneney établi en juillet 1963 par la Commission d’étude. Paris: La Documentation française.Google Scholar
Condamines, Charles. 1989. L’aide humanitaire entre la politique et les affaires. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Coninck, Pierre de. 1970. “Qui sont les travailleurs africains en France (suite).” Bulletin du Groupe de recherche sur le développement rural dans le Tiers Monde 3: 14–16.Google Scholar
Conklin, Alice L. 1997. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895-1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Cooke, Bill. 2003. “A New Continuity with Colonial Administration: Participation in Development Management.” Third World Quarterly 24 (1): 47–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2002. Africa since 1940: The Past of the Present. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2010. “Writing the History of Development.” Journal of Modern European History 8 (1): 5–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2014. Citizenship between Empire and Nation: Remaking France and French Africa, 1945–1960. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick, and Packard, Randall, eds., 1997. International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Coulibalyxe, Ibrahim. 1986. “Un épargnant sans problème.” La Voix de l’UTMF 1: 5.Google Scholar
Crush, Jonathan. 1995. Power of Development. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
da Silva, Ruy. 1969. “Migrations et Développement.” Christianisme social 1 (2): 11–20.Google Scholar
da Silva, Ruy. 1992. La pédagogie de l’honneur. Paris: Lieu Commun.Google Scholar
Daum, Christophe. 1998. Les associations de maliens en France: Migration, développement et citoyenneté. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
de Haas, Hein. 2007. Between Courting and Controlling: The Moroccan State and “Its” Emigrants. Working paper 07–54. Oxford: Centre on Migration, Policy and Society.Google Scholar
de Haas, Hein. 2008a. “The Myth of Invasion: The Inconvenient Realities of Migration from Africa to the European Union.” Third World Quarterly 29 (7): 1305–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Haas, Hein. 2008b. Migration and Development: A Theoretical Perspective. IMI Working Paper 9, Oxford, Okla.: International Migration Institute.Google Scholar
Dedieu, Jean-Philippe. 2011. “Associations subsahariennes: de la liberté d’association à la liberté surveillée.” Plein Droit 89: 32–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dedieu, Jean-Philippe. 2012. La Parole Immigrée: Les Migrants Africains dans l’Espace Public en France, 1960–1995. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Délano, Alexandra. 2013. Mexico and Its Diaspora in the United States: Policies of Emigration since 1848. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Delgado-Wise, Raúl. 2014. “A Critical Overview of Migration and Development: The Latin American Challenge.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 643–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diatta, Angelique, and Mbow, Ndiaga. 1999. “Releasing the Development Potential of Return Migration: The Case of Senegal.” International Migration 37 (1): 243–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diaw, Aminata, and Diouf, Mamadou. 1998. “The Senegalese Opposition and Its Quest for Power.” In The Politics of Opposition in Contemporary Africa, edited by Olukoshi, Adebeyo O., 113–43. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
Dimier, Véronique. 2001. “De la décolonisation… à la décentralisation: Histoire de préfets ‘coloniaux.’” Politix 53: 203–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diop, Momar Coumba, and Diouf, Mamadou. 1990. Le Sénégal sous Abdou Diouf: Etat et Société. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Diouf, Mamadou. 1997. “Senegalese Development: From Mass Mobilization to Technocratic Elitism.” In International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, edited by Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall, 291–319. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Dubois, Jacques. 1971. “Les travailleurs étrangers et la formation.” Carrefour 4: 3–4.Google Scholar
Escobar, Arturo. 1994. Encountering Development. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
European Commission. 2015. Accountability Report 2015 on Financing for Development. Brussels: European Commission.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 1990. The Anti-Politics Machine: Development, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 1999. Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life on the Zambian Copper Belt. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
FitzGerald, David Scott. 2006. “Inside the Sending State: The Politics of Mexican Emigration Control.” International Migration Review 40 (2): 259–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FitzGerald, David Scott. 2009. A Nation of Emigrants: How Mexico Manages Its Migration. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Francis, Paul. 2001. “Participatory Development and the World Bank: The Primary of Process.” In Participation: The New Tyranny? edited by Cooke, Bill and Kothari, Uma, 72–87. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Frey, Marc, and Kunkel, Sönke. 2011. “Writing the History of Development: A Review of Recent Literature.” Contemporary European History 20 (2): 215–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gamlen, Alan. 2006. Diaspora Engagement Policies: What Are They and What Kinds of States Use Them? Working Paper 06–32, COMPAS, University of Oxford.Google Scholar
Gamlen, Alan. 2014. “Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance.” International Migration Review 48 (1): 180–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geertz, Clifford. 1963. “The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States.” In Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, edited by Geertz, Clifford, 105–57. New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Gellar, Sheldon. 2005. Democracy in Senegal: Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM). 2005. Summary of the Report of the Global Commission on International Migration. New York: United Nations Secretariat (Population Division/Department of Economic and Social Affairs).Google Scholar
Godfrain, Jacques. 1998. L’Afrique, notre avenir. Paris: Michel Lafon.Google Scholar
Groupe de Travail Coopération Française. 1989. Les interventions en milieu rural: Principes et approche méthodologique. Paris: Ministère de la Coopération et du développement.Google Scholar
Grysole, Amélie, and Mbodj-Pouye, Aïssatou. 2017. “Bons, fax et sacs de riz. Tenir et maintenir un circuit économique transnational (France, Sénégal).” Cahiers d’études africaines 225 (1): 121–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harbeson, John W., Rothchild, Donald, and Chazan, Naomi, eds. 1994. Civil Society and the State in Africa, Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodge, Joseph Morgan. 2015. “Writing the History of Development (Part 1: The First Wave).” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6 (3): 429–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodge, Joseph Morgan. 2016. “Writing the History of Development (Part 2: Longer, Deeper, Wider).” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 7 (1): 125–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iskander, Natasha. 2010. Creative State: Forty Years of Migration and Development Policy in Morocco and Mexico. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Journal Officiel de la République du Mali. 1992. “Décret N°92-008/PM-RM fixant les attributions spécifiques des membres du gouvernement en date du 9 juin 1992.” June 23.Google Scholar
Kapur, Devesh. 2004. Remittances: The New Development Mantra? G-24 Discussion Paper Series, no. 29, New York: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.Google Scholar
Kapur, Devesh. 2010. Diaspora, Development, and Democracy: The Domestic Impact of International Migration from India. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klinker, Karl. 2014. “Unlikely Advocates of the Liberal Creed: Strategies of Framing in the Acehnese Diaspora in Sweden.” Master’s thesis, Lunds University.Google Scholar
Kothari, Uma. 2005. “From Colonial Administration to Development Studies: A Postcolonial Critique of the History of Development Studies.” In A Radical History of Development Studies: Individuals, Institutions and Ideologies, edited by Kothari, Uma, 47–66. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
L’Essor. 1991. “Visa de sortie: Vive la liberté bonjour la perplexité.” July 11.Google Scholar
Lacroix, Thomas. 2005. Les Réseaux marocains du développement: Géographie du transnational et politiques du territorial. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laurens, Sylvain. 2009. Une politisation feutrée: Les hauts fonctionnaires et l’immigration en France (1962–1981). Paris: Belin.Google Scholar
Lebon, André. 1984. “Return Migration from France: Policies and Data.” In The Politics of Return: International Return Migration in Europe, edited by Kubát, Daniel, 153–69. New York: Center for Migration Studies.Google Scholar
Lessault, David, and Beauchemin, Cris. 2009. “Ni invasion, ni exode: Regards statistiques sur les migrations d’Afrique subsaharienne.” Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationales, 25 (1): 163–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, Peggy, and Dehesa, Rafael de la. 2003. “Transnational Migration and the Redefinition of the State: Variations and Explanations.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 26 (4): 587–611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitt, Peggy, and Nyberg-Sørensen, Ninna. 2004. The Transnational Turn in Migration Studies. Geneva: Global Commission on International Migration.Google Scholar
Little, Kenneth. 1974. Urbanization as a Social Process: An Essay on Movement and Change in Contemporary Africa. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Maier, Charles S., ed. 1987. Changing Boundaries of the Political Essays on the Evolving Balance Between the State and Society, Public and Private in Europe. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mainet, Guy. 1988. “Comportements migratoires et dynamismes ethniques dans la ville africaine.” Espace, populations, sociétés 6 (2): 295–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manchuelle, François. 1997. Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848–1960. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Mandé, Issiaka. 1996. “Les associations d’originaires, promoteurs du développement régional en Haute Volta (actuel Burkina Faso) de 1959 à 1982?” In Interdépendances villes-campagnes en Afrique: Mobilité des hommes, circulation des biens et diffusion des modèles depuis les indépendances, edited by Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, d’Almeida-Topor, Hélène, and Sénéchal, Jacques, 113–38. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Mann, Gregory. 2015. From Empires to NGOs in the West African Sahel: The Road to Nongovernmentality. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marie, Alain. 1997. L’Afrique des individus: Itinéraires citadins dans l’Afrique contemporaine (Abidjan, Bamako, Dakar, Niamey). Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Martens, Georges. 1980. “Le syndicalisme en Afrique occidentale d’expression française: de 1945 à 1960.” Le mois en Afrique 178–179: 74–97.Google Scholar
Martin, Guy. 1985. “The Historical, Economic, and Political Bases of France’s African Policy.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 23 (2): 189–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFarland, Victor. 2015. “The New International Economic Order, Interdependence, and Globalization.” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6 (1): 217–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNamara, Francis Terry. 1989. France in Black Africa. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meillassoux, Claude. 1968. Urbanization of an African Community: Voluntary Associations in Bamako. Seattle: University of Washington Press.Google Scholar
Meimon, Julien. 2005. En quête de légitimité: Le ministère de la Coopération (1959–1999). Ph.D. diss., Université Lille–II, France.Google Scholar
Mendras, Henri. 1967. La fin des paysans. Innovations et changement dans l’agriculture française. Paris: SEDEIS.Google Scholar
Migdal, Joel S. 1988. Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mignon, Jean-Marie. 1986. “Le destin de la loi de 1901 sur les associations en Afrique Occidentale Française.” Les Cahiers de l’animation 22: 21–38.Google Scholar
Migrations Etudes. 1999. Special issue: “Résumés des synthèses de 1988 à 1998.”Google Scholar
Moreau, Gérard, and Debart, Marie-Hélène. 1985. “Le retour et la réinsertion des travailleurs étrangers aux pays d’origine.” Droit social 9–10: 683–91.Google Scholar
Naïr, Sami. 1997. Rapport de bilan et d’orientation sur la politique de co-développement liée aux flux migratoires. Paris: Ministère des Affaires étrangères.Google Scholar
Noiriel, Gérard. 2007. Immigration, antisémitisme et racisme en France, XIXe–XXe siècle: discours publics, humiliations privées. Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar
Nyberg-Sørensen, Ninna, Hear, Nicholas Van, and Engberg-Pedersen, Poul. 2002. “The Migration–Development Nexus Evidence and Policy Options.” International Migration 40 (5): 49–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panizzon, Marion. 2011. “France’s Codevelopment Program: Financial and Fiscal Incentives to Promote Diaspora Entrepreneurship and Transfers.” In Diaspora for Development in Africa, edited by Plaza, Sonia and Ratha, Dilip, 183–229. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
David, Paulsson. 2014. Development at Home: “A Case Study of Development Cooperation between the Swedish Government and the Somali Diaspora in Sweden.” Master thesis, Lunds University.Google Scholar
Péchu, Cécile. 1999. “Black African Immigrants in France and Claims for Housing.” Journal of Ethnic and Migrations Studies 25 (4): 727–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Portes, Alejandro, Guarnizo, Luis E., and Landolt, Patricia. 1999. “The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22 (2): 217–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Postel-Vinay, André. 1972. Réflexions sur l’aide française. Paris: Direction de la prévision.Google Scholar
Quiminal, Catherine. 1991. Gens d’ici, gens d’ailleurs. Paris: Christian Bourgois.Google Scholar
Rahmena, Majid. 1992. “Participation.” In The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power, edited by Sachs, Wolfgang, 116–31. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
République du Mali. 1991. Actes de la Conférence nationale du Mali tenue du 29 juillet au 12 août 1991. Bamako: République du Mali.Google Scholar
Robinson, Pearl T. 1994. “The National Conference Phenomenon in Francophone Africa.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 36 (3): 575–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, Everett M. 1962. Diffusion of Innovations. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Rosenau, James N. 1997. Along the Domestic–Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostow, Walt Whitman. 1960. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rouillé d’Orfeuil, Henri. 1984. Coopérer autrement: L’engagement des ONG aujourd’hui. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar
Sachs, Wolfgang, ed. 1992. The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Schachter-Morgenthau, Ruth. 1964. Political Parties in French-Speaking West Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Secrétariat Général à l’Intégration. 1992. L’immigration en France des pays ressortissants d’Afrique noire. Paris: Secrétariat général à l’intégration.Google Scholar
Siméant, Johanna. 1998. La cause des sans-papiers. Paris: Presses de Sciences Po.Google Scholar
Soumaré, Siré. 2001. Après l’émigration, le retour à la terre: L’exemple de Somankidi-Koura. Bamako: Éditions Djamana.Google Scholar
Vengroff, Richard. 1993. “Governance and the Transition to Democracy: Political Parties and the Party System in Mali.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 31 (4): 541–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viet, Vincent. 1998. La France immigrée: Construction d’une politique (1914–1997). Paris: Fayard.Google Scholar
Villalón, Leonardo A. 1994. “Democratizing a (Quasi) Democracy: The Senegalese Elections of 1993.” African Affairs 371: 163–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldinger, Roger D., and FitzGerald, David Scott. 2004. “Transnationalism in Question.” American Journal of Sociology 109 (5): 1177–95.Google Scholar
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1966. “Voluntary Associations.” In Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa, edited by Coleman, James S. and Rosberg, Carl G., 318–39. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Weil, Patrick. 1991. La France et ses étrangers. Paris: Gallimard.Google Scholar
Weil, Patrick. 2002. “Towards a Coherent Policy of Co–Development.” International Migration 40 (3): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiner, Myron. 1992-1993. “Security, Stability, and International Migration.” International Security 17 (3): 91–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitaker, Beth Elise. 2011. “The Politics of Home: Dual Citizenship and the African Diaspora.” International Migration Review 45 (4): 755–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteman, Kaye. 1983. “President Mitterrand and Africa.” African Affairs 328: 329–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widner, Jennifer, ed. 1994. Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wihtol de Wenden, Catherine. 1988. Les immigrés et la politique: Cent cinquante ans d’évolution. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques.Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide. 1966. Creating Political Order: The Party-States of West Africa. Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar