Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-qs9v7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-11T06:33:24.040Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ethnographic and Modeled Costs of Long-Distance, Big-Game Hunting

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Deanna N. Grimstead
Deanna N. Grimstead*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85711 (dng@email.arizona.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Evolutionary ecology provides a rich pool of models from which archaeologists derive expectations about prehistoric human behavior. Signaling Theory (ST) has been applied successfully in ethnographic and certain archaeological contexts. Other applications have fallen prey to post-hoc explanation of aberrant archaeological patterns. This paper evaluates the claim that big-game hunting was a costly foraging behavior when traveling great distances, and therefore was undertaken as a form of costly signaling. The central place foraging model is used in conjunction with caloric expenditure formulae, derived from human energetics and locomotion research, to evaluate the cost of travel and transport versus the returns for large and small prey items. It is shown that big game continues to yield significant energetic returns even in situations where travel costs are comparatively high (i.e., 100-200 km round-trip). Small game hunting becomes energetically costly when a forager makes a procurement round-trip of more than ca.10 km. Large game animals are the highest return prey items even when procurement distances are comparatively great because humans are physiologically well-adapted for carrying objects over long distances. While the capture of big game animals may have bestowed prestige upon prehistoric hunters or served as some other signal of individual quality, these prey animals were not overly costly in terms of energetic efficiency—even under increased travel costs. These results emphasize the difficulty of separating social prestige from optimal foraging as the basis for big-game hunting in archaeological contexts.

Resumen

Resumen

La ecología evolucionista proporciona una fuente abundante de modelos utilizados por los arqueólogos al formular expectativas sobre el comportamiento humano prehistórico. La Teoría de Señales (ST, por sus siglas en inglés) se ha podido aplicar con éxito en ciertos contextos arqueológicos y etnográficos. En otros casos, su aplicación ha sufrido el invento de explicaciones post hoc de patrones arqueológicos aberrantes. Este trabajo evalúa la afirmación de que la cacería de presas grandes era un comportamiento de forraje costoso en viajes de larga distancia y que por eso se emprendía como forma costosa de señalar. Se emplea el modelo de forraje de sitio central, junto con formulas de gasto calórico que se derivan de la investigación de la energética y locomoción humana, para así evaluar el costo del viaje y del transporte versus los rendimientos de ítems de presa de la caza mayor y menor. Se demuestra que la caza de presas grandes produce rendimientos energéticos importantes aun en situaciones donde los costos de viaje sean relativamente altos (i.e., 100-200 km ida y vuelta). La caza de presas pequeñas se vuelve energéticamente costosa cuando un forrajero teórico complete un viaje de obtención de más de ca. 10 km. Los animales de cacería mayor representan el rendimiento más alto aun cuando las distancias de obtención sean relativamente grandes porque los humanos están bien adaptados fisiológicamente a cargar objetos a través de distancias largas. Mientras que la captura de animales de cacería mayor puede haber concedido prestigio a cazadores prehistóricos, o puede haber servido para señalar alguna otra cualidad personal, estas presas de cacería no eran demasiado costosas en términos de la eficacia energética, aun con mayores costos de viaje. Estos resultados enfatizan la dificultad de separar del prestigio social el forraje óptimo como base de la cacería mayor en contextos arqueológicos.

Type
Articles
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 75 , Issue 1 , January 2010 , pp. 61 - 80
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Aldenderfer, Mark 2006 Costly Signaling, The Sexual Division of Labor, and Animal Domestication in the Andean Highlands. In Behavioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, edited by Douglas J. Kennett and Bruce Winterhalder, pp. 167–196. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Alexander, R. M. 1980 Optimum Walking Techniques for Quadrupeds and Bipeds. Journal of Zoology 192:97–117.Google Scholar
Alexander, R. M. 1991 Energy-saving Mechanisms in Walking and Running. Journal of Experimental Biology 160:55–69.Google Scholar
Anderson, David G., and Christopher Gillam, J. 2000 Paleoindian Colonization of the Americas: Implications from an Examination of Physiography, Demography, and Artifact Distribution. American Antiquity 65:43–66.Google Scholar
Andersson, Malte 1976 Social Behavior and Communication in the Great Skua. Behaviour 58:40–77.Google Scholar
Andersson, Staffan 1992 Female Preference for Long Tails in Lekking Jackson’s Widowbirds: Experimental Evidence. Animal Behaviour 43:379–388.Google Scholar
Arak, Anthony, and Enquist, Magnus 1993 Hidden Preferences and the Evolution of Signals. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 340:207–213.Google Scholar
Balke, B., and Snow, C. 1965 Anthropological and Physiological Observations on Tarahumara Endurance Runners. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 23:293–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barlow, K. Renee, Henrickson, Penny R., and Metcalfe, Duncan 1993 Estimating Load Size in Great Basin: Data from Conical Burden Baskets. Utah Archaeology 6:27–36.Google Scholar
Bayham, Frank E. 1979 Factors Influencing the Archaic Pattern of Animal Exploitation. The Kiva 44:219–235.Google Scholar
Bergh, U., Sjödin, B., Forsberg, A., and Svedenahg, J. 1991 The Relationship between Body Mass and Oxygen Uptake during Running in Humans. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise 23:205–211.Google Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L., Malhi, Ripan, and McCarthy, Helen 1997 Central Place Models of Acorn and Mussel Processing. Journal of Archaeological Science 24:887–899.Google Scholar
Blaxter, Kenneth 1989 Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. Cambridge University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Bliege Bird, Rebecca, and Smith, Eric A. 2005 Signaling Theory, Strategic Interaction, and Symbolic Capital. Current Anthropology 46(2):221–248.Google Scholar
Bliege Bird, Rebecca, Smith, Eric A., and Bird, Douglas W.. 2001 The Hunting Handicap: Costly Signaling in Male Foraging Strategies. Behavioral Ecology and Sociology 50:9–19.Google Scholar
Boone, James L. 1998 The Evolution of Magnanimity: When is it Better to Give than to Receive? Human Nature 9:1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bourdin, M., Belli, A., Arsac, L. M., Bosco, C., and Lacour, J. R. 1995 Effect of Vertical Loading on Energy Cost and Kinematics of Running in Trained Male Subjects. Journal of Applied Physiology 79(6):2078–2085.Google Scholar
Bourdin, M., Pastene, J., Germain, M., and Lacour, J. R. 1993 Influence of Training, Sex, age, and body mass on the energy cost of running. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 66:439–444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradbury, Jack W., and Vehrencamp, Sandra L. 1998 Principles of Animal Communication. Sinnauer Associates, Sunderland.Google Scholar
Bramble, Dennis M., and Lieberman, Daniel E. 2004 Endurance Running and the Evolution of Homo. Nature 432:345–354.Google Scholar
Broughton, Jack M. 1999 Resource Depression and Intensification During the Late Holocene, San Francisco Bay: Evidence from the Emeryville Shellmound Vertebrate Fauna. Anthropological Records 32. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Broughton, Jack M., and Bayham, Frank E. 2003 Showing Off, Foraging Models, and the Ascendance of Large-Game Hunting in the California Middle Archaic. American Antiquity 68:783–790.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchanan, Katherine L. 2000 Stress and the Evolution of Condition-dependent Signals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15:156–160.Google Scholar
Byers, John A. 1984 Play in Ungulates. In Play in Animals and Humans, edited by Peter K. Smith, pp. 43–65. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.Google Scholar
Caiozzo, Vincent J., and Kyle, Chester R. 1980 The Effect of External Loading upon Power Output in Stair Climbing. European Journal of Applied Physiology 44:217–222.Google Scholar
Cannon, Michael D. 2003 A Model of Central Place Forager Prey Choice and an Application to Faunal Remains from the Mimbres Valley, New Mexico. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:1–25.Google Scholar
Cavagna, G. A., and Kaneko, M. 1977 Mechanical Work and Efficiency in Level Walking and Running. Journal of Physiology 268:467–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Albon, S. D. 1979 The Roaring of Red Deer and the Evolution of Honest Advertisement. Behavior 69:145–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Codding, Brian F., and Jones, Terry L. 2007 Man the Showoff? Or the Ascendance of a Just-So-Story: A Comment on Recent Applications of Costly Signaling Theory in American Archaeology. American Antiquity 72(2):349–358.Google Scholar
Cooke, C. B., McDonagh, M. J. N., Nevill, A. M., and Davies, C. T. M. 1991 Effects of Load on Oxygen Intake in Trained Boys and Men during Treadmill Running. Journal of Applied Physiology 71:1237–1244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, C. T. M. 1980 Metabolic Costs of Exercise and Physiological Performance in Children with Some Observations on External Loading. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 45:95–102.Google Scholar
Davies, C. T. M., and Thompson, M. W. 1979 Aerobic Performance of Female Marathon and Male Ultramarathon Athletes. European Journal of Applied Physiology 41:233–245.Google Scholar
Eerkens, Jelmer W., Rosenthal, Jeffrey S., Spero, Howard J., Shiraki, Ryoji, and Herbert, Gregory S. 2007 Shell Bead Sourcing: A Comparison of Two Techniques on Olivella biplicata Shells and Beads from Western North America In Archaeological Chemistry: Analytical Techniques and Archaeological Interpretation, edited by M. D. Glascock, R. J. Speakman, and R. S. Popelka-Filcoff, pp. 167–193. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Feranec, R. S., Hadly, E. A., and Paytan, A. 2007 Determining landscape use of Holocene mammals using strontium isotopes. Oecologia 153(4):943–950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzgibbon, C. D., and Fanshawe, J. H. 1988 Stotting in Thomson’s Gazelles: An Honest Signal of Condition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23:69–74.Google Scholar
Getty, Thomas 2002 Signaling Health versus Parasites. American Naturalist 159:363–371.Google Scholar
Grabowski, Alena, Farley, Claire T., and Kram, Rodger 2005 Independent Metabolic Costs of Supporting Body Weight and Accelerating Body Mass During Walking. Journal of Applied Physiology 98:579–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grayson, Donald K. 2001 The Archaeological Record of Human Impacts on Animal Populations. Journal of World Prehistory 15:1–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenfield, Michael D. 2002 Signalers and Receivers: Mechanisms and Evolution of Anthropod Communication. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Griffin, Timothy M., Roberts, Thomas J., and Kram, Rodger 2003 Metabolic Cost of Generating Muscular Force in Human Walking: Insights from Load-Carrying and Speed Experiments. Journal of Applied Physiology 95:172–183.Google Scholar
Grimstead, Deanna N. 2005 Tracking Artiodactyl Hunting Across Late Period Northern California: An Assessment of Traditional and Geochemical Methods. Unpublished Masters Thesis, California State University, Chico.Google Scholar
Grimstead, Deanna N. 2009 Contradictions and Compliments: The Use of Geochemistry and Body Part Utility Analysis to Detect Non-Local Procurement Strategies during the Late Holocene in Northern California. In Understanding California Prehistory: Deriving Meaning from Shells, Bones, and Other Remains, edited by Michael A. Glassow and Terry L. Joslin. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Grimstead, Deanna N., and Bayham, Frank E. 2007 The Signification of Costly Signaling: An Evaluation of Visibility in Prehistory. Paper presented at the Society for California Archaeology, Annual Conference, San Jose, March 18, 2007.Google Scholar
Grimstead, Deanna N., and Bayham, Frank E. 2009 Signaling Theory and Archaeology: A Model for Identifying Honest Signalers in Prehistory. Manuscript on file, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.Google Scholar
Grimstead, Deanna N., and Bayham, Frank E. 2010 Evolutionary Ecology, Elite Feasting, and the Hohokam: A Case Study from a Southern Arizona Platform Mound. American Antiquity, in Press.Google Scholar
Gurven, Michael, and Hill, Kim 2009 Why Do Men Hunt? A Reevaluation of “Man the Hunter” and the Sexual Division of Labor. Current Anthropology 50(1):51–74.Google Scholar
Hare, Timothy S. 2004 Using Measures of Cost Distance in the Estimation of Polity Boundaries in the Postclassic Yautepec Valley, Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 31:799–814.Google Scholar
Hasson, Oren 1994 Cheating Signals. Journal of Theoretical Biology 167:223–238.Google Scholar
Hasson, Oren 1997 Towards a General Theory of Biological Signaling. Journal of Theoretical Biology 185:139–156.Google Scholar
Hawkes, Kristen 1991 Showing Off: Tests of an Hypothesis about Men’s Hunting Goals. Ethology and Sociobiology 12:29–54.Google Scholar
Hawkes, Kristen, O’Connell, James F., and Blurton Jones, Nicholas G. 2001 Hunting and Nuclear Families: Some Lessons from the Hadza about Men’s Work. Current Anthropology 42:681–709.Google Scholar
Heffelfinger, Jim 2006 Deer of the Southwest. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas.Google Scholar
Hildebrandt, William R., and McGuire, Kelly R. 2002 The Ascendance of Hunting during the California Middle Archaic: An Evolutionary Perspective. American Antiquity 67:231–256.Google Scholar
Hildebrandt, William R., and McGuire, Kelly R. 2003 Large-Game Hunting, Gender-Differentiated Work Organization, and the Role of Evolutionary Ecology in California and Great Basin Prehistory: A Reply to Broughton and Bayham. American Antiquity 68:790–792.Google Scholar
Hill, Geoffrey E. 1995 Ornamental Traits as Indicators of Environmental Health. Bioscience 45:25–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Kim, and Magdalena Hurtado, A. 1996 Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People. Aldine de Gruyter: Hawthorne, New York.Google Scholar
Hockett, Bryan 2005 Middle and Late Holocene Hunting in the Great Basin: A Critical Review of the Debate and Future Prospects. American Antiquity 70:713–731.Google Scholar
Hoppe, Kathryn A., Koch, Paul L., Carlson, Richard W., and David Webb, S. 1999 Tracking Mammoths and Mastodons: Reconstruction of Migratory Behavior using Strontium Isotope Ratios. Geology 27:439–442.Google Scholar
Hutchison, D. W., and Chevemd, J. M. 1995 Fluctuating Asymmetry in Tamarin (Saguinus) Cranial Morphology: Intra- and Interspecific Comparisons between Taxa with Varying Levels of Genetic Heterozygosity. Journal of Heredity 86:280–288.Google Scholar
Johnstone, Rufus A. 1995 Sexual Selection, Honest Advertisement and The Handicap Principle: Reviewing the Evidence. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 70(1):1–65.Google Scholar
Kaplan, Hillard, and Hill, Kim 1985 Hunting Ability and Reproductive Success among Male Foragers: Preliminary Results. Current Anthropology 26:131–133.Google Scholar
Kelly, Robert L. 1995 The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Kuhn, Steven L., and Stiner, Mary C. 2006 What’s a Mother to Do? The Division of Labor among Neandertals and Modern Humans in Eurasia. Current Anthropology 47(6):953–981.Google Scholar
Liebenberg, Louis 2006 Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter-Gatherers. Current Anthropology 47: 1017–1025.Google Scholar
Lieberman, Danial E., Bramble Dennis, M., and Raichlen, David 2009 Brains, Brawn, and the Evolution of Human Endurance Running Capabilities. In The First Humans: Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo: Contributions From the Third Stony Brook Human Evolution Symposium and Workshop, October 3 – October 7, 2006, edited by Frederick E. Gine, John G. Fleagle, and Richard E. Leakey, pp. 77–98. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, Kent 1979 Food Redistribution Among Prehistoric Pueblo Groups. The Kiva 44(4): 319–339.Google Scholar
Lumholtz, Charles 1902 Unknown Mexico. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.Google Scholar
McCarthy, H. 1993 A Political Economy of Western Mono Acorn Production. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis.Google Scholar
McGowan, G. M., Duarte, H. A., Main, J. B., and Biewener, A. A. 2006 Effects of Load Carrying on Metabolic Cost and Hind Limb Muscle Dynamics in Guinea Fowl (Numida meleagris). Journal of Applied Physiology 101:1060–1069.Google Scholar
McGuire, Kelly, and Hildebrandt, William 2005 Re-Thinking Great Basin Foragers: Prestige Hunting and Costly Signaling during the Middle Archaic Period. American Antiquity 70:695–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGuire, Kelly, Hildebrandt, William R., and Carpenter, Kim C. 2007 Costly Signaling and the Ascendance of No-Can-Do Archaeology: A Reply to Codding and Jones. American Antiquity 72:349–348.Google Scholar
Madsen, David B., and Schmitt, Dave N. 1998 Mass Collecting and the Diet Breadth Model: A Great Basin Example. Journal of Archaeological Science 25(5):445–455.Google Scholar
Maloiy, G. M., Heglund, N. C., Prager, L. M., Cavagna, G. A., and Taylor, C. R. 1986 Energetic Cost of Carrying Loads: Have African Women Discovered an Economic Way? Nature 319:668–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malville, Nancy J. 1999 Porters of the Eastern Hills of Nepal: Body Size and Load Weight. American Journal of Human Biology 11:1–11.Google Scholar
Malville, Nancy J. 2001 Long-Distance Transport of Bulk Goods in the Pre-Hispanic American Southwest. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20(2):230–243.Google Scholar
Malville, Nancy J., Byrnes, William C., Allen Lim, H., and Basnyat, Ramesh 2001 Commercial Porters of Eastern Nepal: Health Status, Physical Work Capacity, and Energy Expenditure. American Journal of Human Biology 13:44–56.Google Scholar
Margaria, R., Cerretelli, P., Aghemo, P., and Sassi, G. 1963 Energy Cost of Running. Journal of Applied Physiology 18(2):367–370.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, Duncan, and Renee Barlow, K. 1992 A Model for Exploring the Optimal Trade-off between Field Processing and Transport. American Anthropologist 94:340–356.Google Scholar
Mock, Douglas W., and Parker, Geoffrey A. 1997 The Evolution of Sibling Rivalry. Oxford University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Myers, M. J., and Steudel, K. 1985 Effect of Limb Mass and its distribution on the energetic cost of running. Journal of Experimental Biology 116:363–373.Google Scholar
Neiman, Fraser D. 1997 Conspicuous Consumption as Wasteful Advertising: A Darwinian Perspective on Spatial Patterns in Classic Maya Terminal Monument Dates. In Rediscovering Darwin: Evolutionary Theory and Archaeological Explanation vol. 7, edited by C. Michael Burton, Geoffrey Clark, and Douglas Bamforth, pp. 267–290. American Anthropological Association, Arlington.Google Scholar
Norris, Ken 1993 Heritable Variation in a Plumage Indicator of Viability in Male Great Tits, Parus Major. Nature 362:537–539.Google Scholar
O’Connell, James F., and Hawkes, Kristen 1988 Hadza Hunting, Butchering, and Bone Transport and their Archaeological Implications. Journal of Anthropological Research 44:113–161.Google Scholar
O’Connell, James F., Hawkes, Kristen, and Blurton Jones, N. 1990 Reanalysis of Large Mammal Body Part Transport among the Hadza. Journal of Archaeological Science 17:301–316.Google Scholar
Orians, Gordan H. and Pearson, Nolan E. 1976 On the Theory of Central Place Foraging. In Analysis of Ecological Systems, edited by David J. Horn, Gordan R. Stairs, and Rodger D. Mitchell, pp. 156–177. Ohio State University Press, Columbus.Google Scholar
Padilla, S., Bourdin, M., Barthelemy, J.C., and Lacour, J. R. 1992 Physiological Correlates of Middle-distance Running Performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 65:561–566.Google Scholar
Pandolf, K. B., Givoni, B., and Goldman, R. F. 1977 Predicting Energy Expenditures With Loads While Standing or Walking Slowly. Journal of Applied Physiology 43:577–581.Google Scholar
Panter-Brick, C. 1992 The Energy Cost of Common Tasks in Rural Nepal: Levels of Energy Expenditure Compatibility with Sustained Physical Activity. European Journal of Applied Physiology 64:477–84.Google Scholar
Patton, John Q. 2005 Meat Sharing for Political Support. Evolution and Human Behavior 26:137–157.Google Scholar
Peters, Anne, Delhey, Kaspar, Denk, Angelika G., and Kempanaers, Bart 2003 Trade Offs Between Immune Investment and Sexual Signaling in Male Mallards. The American Naturalist 164(1):51–59.Google Scholar
Pianka, Eric R. 1994 Evolutionary Ecology, Fifth Edition. Harper Collins College Publishers, New York.Google Scholar
Pyke, G. H., Pulliam, H. R., and Charnov, Eric L. 1977 Optimal Foraging: A Selective Review of Theory and Tests. The Quarterly Review of Biology 52:137–154.Google Scholar
Quillfeldt, Petra, Masello, Juan F., Strange, Ian J., and Buchanan, Katherine L. 2006 Begging and Provisioning of Thin-billed Prions, Pachyptila belcheri, are Related to Testosterone and Corticosterone. Animal Behaviour 71:1359–1369.Google Scholar
Randier, Christoph 2006 Is Tail Wagging in White Wagtails, Motacilla alha, an Honest Signal of Vigilance? Animal Behaviour 71:1089–1093.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Amanda C., Betancourt, Julio L., Quade, Jay, Jonathan Patchett, P., Dean, Jeffrey S., and Stein, John 2005 87Sr/86Sr sourcing of ponderosa pine used in Anasazi great house construction at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico. Journal of Archaeological Science 32(7): 1061–1075.Google Scholar
Roulin, A. 2001 Screaming as a Strategy to Reduce the Predation Risk Incurred by Begging? Behaviour 138:615–627.Google Scholar
Schoener, Thomas W. 1979 Generality of the Size-Distance Relation in Models of Optimal Feeding. The American Naturalist 114(6):902–914.Google Scholar
Searcy, William A., and Yasukawa, Ken 1996 Song and Female Choice. In Ecology and Evolution of Acoustic Communication in Birds, edited by D. E. Kroodsma and E. H. Miller, pp. 454–473. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York.Google Scholar
Simms, Steven R. 1987 Behavioral Ecology and Hunter-Gatherer Foraging: An Example from the Great Basin. British Archaeological Reports International Series No. 381. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford, UK.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric A. 1991 Inujjuamiut Foraging Strategies: Evolutionary Ecology of an Arctic Hunting Community. Aldine de Gruyter, New York.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric A. 2004 Why Do Good Hunters Have Higher Reproductive Success? Human Nature 15(4):343–364.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric A., and Bliege Bird, Rebecca L. 2000 Turtle Hunting and Tombstone Opening: Public Generosity as Costly Signaling. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:245–261.Google Scholar
Smith, Eric A., Bird, Rebecca Bliege, and Bird, Douglas W. 2003 The Benefits of Costly Signaling: Meriam Turtle-hunters. Behavioral Ecology 14:116–126.Google Scholar
Sosis, Richard 2000 Costly Signaling and Torch Fishing on Ifaluk Atoll. Evolution and Human Behavior 21:223–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sports Illustrated 1963 Lady on a River of Rock. Sports Illustrated 19:26–29.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. R. 1994 Relating Mechanics and Energetics during Exercise. In Comparative Vertebrate Exercise Physiology: Unifying Physiological Principles, edited by James H. Jones, pp. 181–215. Academic Press, San Diego, California.Google Scholar
Taylor, C. R., Schmidt-Nielsen, K., and Raab, J. L. 1970 Scaling of Energetic Cost of Running to Body Size in Mammals. American Journal of Physiology 219:1104–1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, C. R., Heglund, N. C., McMahon, T. A., and Looney, T. R. 1980 Energetic cost of Generating Muscular Force during Running: A Comparison of Large and Small Animals. Journal of Experimental Biology 86:9–18.Google Scholar
Thornhill, Randall, and Gangestad, Steven W. 1993 Human Facial Beauty: Averageness, Symmetry, and Parasite Resistance. Human Nature 4:237–269.Google Scholar
Thornhill, Randal, and Møller, Anders P. 1997 Developmental Stability, Disease and Medicine. Biological Reviews 72:497–528.Google Scholar
Thorstensson, A. 1986 Effects of Moderate External Loading on the Aerobic Demand of Submaximal Running in Men and 10-year-old Boys. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 55:569–574.Google Scholar
Tovée, Martin J., Swami, Viren, Furnham, Adrian, and Mangalparsad, Roshila 2006 Changing Perceptions of Attractiveness as Observers are Exposed to a Different Culture. Evolution and Human Behavior 27:443–456.Google Scholar
Ugan, Andrew 2005 Does Size Matter? Body Size, Mass Collecting, and Their Implications for Understanding Prehistoric Foraging Behavior. American Antiquity 70:75–90.Google Scholar
Wiessner, Polly 2002 Hunting, Healing, and Hxaro Exchange: A Long Term Perspective on !Kung (Ju/’hoansi) Large-Game Hunting. Evolution and Human Behavior 23:407–436.Google Scholar
Wenegrat, Brant, Abrams, Lisa, Castillo-Yee, Eleanor, and Jo Romine, I. 1996 Social Norm Compliance as a Signaling System. I. Studies of Fitness Related Attributions Consequent on Everyday Norm Violations. Ethology and Sociobiology 17:403–416.Google Scholar
Whitaker, John O. 1996 National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.Google Scholar
Wood, Brian 2006 Prestige or Provisioning? A Test of Foraging Goals among the Hadza. Current Anthropology 47:383–387.Google Scholar
Zahavi, A., and Zahavi, A. 1997 The Handicap Principle. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Zeanah, David 2004 Sexual Division of Labor and Central Place Foraging: A Model for the Carson Desert of Western Nevada. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23(1):1–31.Google Scholar