Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-cjp7w Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-27T22:34:47.799Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mammoth Ivory Rods in Eastern Beringia: Earliest in North America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2021

Brian T. Wygal Open the ORCID record for Brian T. Wygal [Opens in a new window] ,
Kathryn E. Krasinski ,
Charles E. Holmes ,
Barbara A. Crass  and
Kathlyn M. Smith
Brian T. Wygal*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA
Kathryn E. Krasinski*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA
Charles E. Holmes
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK, USA (charles.holmes@alaska.edu)
Barbara A. Crass
Affiliation:
Museum of the North, Fairbanks, AK, USA (bcrass1_ua@alaska.edu)
Kathlyn M. Smith
Affiliation:
Department of Geology and Geography, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA (ksmith@georgiasouthern.edu)
*
(bwygal@adelphi.edu, corresponding author)
(kkrasinski@adelphi.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Holzman archaeological site, located along Shaw Creek in interior Alaska, contained two mammoth ivory rods, of which one is bi-beveled, within a stratigraphically sealed cultural context. Dated 13,600–13,300 cal BP, these are the earliest known examples of osseous rod technology in the Americas. Beveled ivory, antler, and bone rods and points share technological similarities between Upper Paleolithic Europe, Asia, eastern Beringia, and the Clovis tradition of North America and are important tool types in understanding the late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans. The Holzman finds are comparable to well-known Clovis tradition artifacts from Anzick (Montana), Blackwater Draw (New Mexico), East Wenatchee (Washington), and Sherman Cave (Ohio). We describe these tools in the broader context of late Pleistocene osseous technology with implications for acquisition and use of mammoth ivory in eastern Beringia and beyond.

El sitio arqueológico de Holzman, ubicado a lo largo de Shaw Creek en el interior de Alaska, contenía dos varillas de marfil de mamut, de las cuales una es bi-biselada, dentro de un contexto cultural estratigráficamente sellado. Fechado en 13.600-13.300 cal aP, estos son los primeros ejemplos conocidos de tecnología de varillas óseas en las Américas. Las varillas y puntas biseladas de marfil, cornamenta y hueso comparten similitudes tecnológicas entre el Paleolítico Superior de Europa, Asia, Beringia oriental, y la tradición Clovis de América del Norte, y son tipos de herramientas importantes en la comprensión de la dispersión del Pleistoceno tardío de los seres humanos modernos. Los hallazgos de Holzman son comparables a los conocidos artefactos de la tradición Clovis de Anzick (Montana), Blackwater Draw (Nuevo México), East Wenatchee (Washington), y Sherman Cave (Ohio). Describimos estas herramientas en el contexto más amplio de la tecnología ósea del Pleistoceno tardío con implicaciones para la adquisición y el uso de marfil de mamut en el este de Beringia y más allá.

Keywords

late Pleistoceneosseous rodspeopling of the AmericasPleistoceno tardíovarillas oseascolonización de las Américas
Type
Article
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 87 , Issue 1 , January 2022 , pp. 59 - 79
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for American Archaeology

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Ackerman, Robert E. 1996 Cave 1, Lime Hills. In American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Paleoecology of Beringia, edited by West, Fredrick Hadleigh, pp. 470–477. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Anikovich, Mikhail V., Sinitsyn, Andrei A., Hoffecker, John F., Holliday, Vance T., Popov, Vladimir V., Lisitsyn, Sergei N., Forman, Steven L., et al. 2007 Early Upper Paleolithic in Eastern Europe and Implications for the Dispersal of Modern Humans. Science 315:223–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Averaniov, Alexander 1996 Sexual Dimorphism in the Mammoth Skull, Teeth, and Long Bones. In The Proboscidea: Evolution and Palaeoecology of Elephants and Their Relatives, edited by Shoshani, Jeheskel and Tassy, Pascal, pp. 260–269. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Boldurian, Anthony T. 2007a Clovis Beveled Rod Manufacture: An Elephant Bone Experiment. North American Archaeologist 28:29–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boldurian, Anthony T. 2007b Weaponry of Clovis Hunters at Blackwater Draw. In Seeking Our Past: An Introduction to North American Archaeology, edited by Neusius, Sarah W. and Gross, G. Timothy, pp. 57–67. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
Boldurian, Anthony T., and Cotter, John Lambert 1999 Clovis Revisited: New Perspectives on Paleoindian Adaptations from Blackwater Draw, New Mexico. Monograph 103. University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications, Philadelphia.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, Jeffrey 2019 Paleodrainage Map of Beringia. Yukon Geological Survey, Open File 2019-2. Electronic document, http://data.geology.gov.yk.ca/Reference/81642#InfoTab, accessed June 21, 2021.Google Scholar
Bostrom, Peter A. 2018 Lithic Casting Lab. Electronic document, http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/, accessed January 9, 2021.Google Scholar
Bradley, Bruce A. 1995 Clovis Ivory and Bone Tools. In Le travail et l'usage de l'ivoire au paléolithique supérieur, edited by Hahn, J., Menu, M., Taborin, Y., Walter, Ph., and Widemann, F., pp. 259–276. Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, Rome.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, Christopher 2020 OxCal 4.4.2. Radiocarbon Calibration Software, University of Oxford. Electronic document, https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html, accessed April 6, 2021.Google Scholar
Byrd, John 1997 The Crook County Cache: A Probable Clovis Mortuary Site in Wyoming. Amateur Archaeologist 4:19–24.Google Scholar
Cotter, John Lambert 1937 The Occurrence of Flints and Extinct Animals in Pluvial Deposits near Clovis, New Mexico. Part IV: Report on Excavation at the Gravel Pit, 1936. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 89:1–16.Google Scholar
Coutouly, Yan Axel Gómez 2012 Pressure Microblade Industries in Pleistocene-Holocene Interior Alaska: Current Data and Discussions. In The Emergence of Pressure Blade Making, edited by Desrosiers, Pierre M., pp. 347–374. Springer, Boston.Google Scholar
Cressman, Luther S. 1942 Archaeological Researches in the Northern Great Basin. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Cressman, Luther S. 1956 Klamath Prehistory. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 46:375–513.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalton, April S., Margold, Martin, Stokes, Chris R., Tarasov, Lev, Dyke, Arthur S., Adams, Roberta S., Allard, Serge, et al. 2020 An Updated Radiocarbon-Based Ice Margin Chronology for the Last Deglaciation of the North American Ice Sheet Complex. Quaternary Science Reviews 234:106223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dansie, Amy J., and Jerrems, Jerry 2004 Lahontan Chronology and Early Human Occupation in the Western Great Basin: A New Look at Old Collections. In New Perspectives on the First Americans, edited by Lepper, Bradley T. and Bonnichsen, Robson, pp. 55–63. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Daugherty, Richard D. 1956 Archaeology of the Lind Coulee Site, Washington. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 100:223–278.Google Scholar
Derev'anko, Anatoli P., Shimkin, Demitri B., and Powers, William Roger (editors) 1998 The Paleolithic of Siberia: New Discoveries and Interpretations. University of Illinois Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Dilley, Thomas Edwards 1998 Late Quaternary Loess Stratigraphy, Soils, and Environments of the Shaw Creek Flats Paleoindian Sites, Tanana Valley, Alaska. PhD dissertation, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson.Google Scholar
Dixon, E. James 1999 Bones, Boats and Bison: Archeology and the First Colonization of Western North America. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Duke, Daron, and King, Jerome 2014 A GIS Model for Predicting Wetland Habitat in the Great Basin at the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition and Implications for Paleoindian Archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science 49:276–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espinoza, Edgard O., and Mann, Mary-Jacque 1993 The History and Significance of the Schreger Pattern in Proboscidean Ivory Characterization. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 32(3):241–248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figgins, Jesse D. 1927 The Antiquity of Man in America. Natural History 27(3):229–239.Google Scholar
Fisher, Daniel C., Trapani, Josh, Shoshani, Jeheskel, and Woodford, M. S. 1998 Schreger Angles in Mammoth and Mastodon Tusk Dentin. Current Research in the Pleistocene 15:105–106.Google Scholar
Frison, George C. 1982 The Sheaman Site: A Clovis Component. In The Agate Basin Site: A Record of the Paleoindian Occupation of the Northwestern High Plains, edited by Frison, George C. and Stanford, Dennis, pp. 143–157. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Frison, George C., and Zeimens, George M. 1980 Bone Projectile Points: An Addition to the Folsom Cultural Complex. American Antiquity 45(2):231–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fryxell, Roald, Bielicki, Tadeusz, Daugherty, Richard D., Gustafson, Carl E., Irwin, Henry T., and Keel, Bennie C. 1968 A Human Skeleton from Sediments of Mid-Pinedale Age in Southeastern Washington. American Antiquity 33:511–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Phoebe J. 2011 Micromorphology, Site Spatial Variation and Patterning, and Climate Change at the Mead Site (XBD-071): A Multi-Component Archaeological Site in Interior Alaska. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.Google Scholar
Goebel, Ted, Smith, Heather L., DiPietro, Lyndsay, Waters, Michael R., Hockett, Bryan, Graf, Kelly E., Gal, Robert, et al. 2013 Serpentine Hot Springs, Alaska: Results of Excavations and Implications for the Age and Significance of Northern Fluted Points. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:4222–4233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graf, Kelly E., and Buvit, Ian 2017 Human Dispersal from Siberia to Beringia: Assessing a Beringian Standstill in Light of the Archaeological Evidence. Current Anthropology 58:S583–603.Google Scholar
Gramly, Richard M. 1993 The Richey Clovis Cache: Earliest Americans along the Columbia River. Great Lakes Artifact Repository, Persimmon Press, Buffalo, New York.Google Scholar
Grigoriev, Semyon E., Fisher, Daniel C., Obadă, Theodor, Shirley, Ethan A., Rountrey, Adam N., Savvinov, Grigory N., Garmaeva, Darima K., et al. 2017 A Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus Primigenius) Carcass from Maly Lyakhovsky Island (New Siberian Islands, Russian Federation). Quaternary International 445:89–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, Gary A. 1991 Mammoths, Mastodonts, and Elephants: Biology, Behavior, and the Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Haynes, Gary A. 2002 The Early Settlement of North America: The Clovis Era. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Haynes, Gary A. 2015 The Millennium before Clovis. PaleoAmerica 1:134–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, Gary A., and Klimowicz, Janis 2015 Recent Elephant-Carcass Utilization as a Basis for Interpreting Mammoth Exploitation. Quaternary International 359–360:19–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, Gary A., Krasinski, Kathryn E., and Wojtal, Piotr 2021 A Study of Fractured Proboscidean Bones in Recent and Fossil Assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 28:956–1025. DOI:10.1007/s10816-020-09486-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hebda, Richard J., Burns, James A., Geertsema, Marten, and Timothy Jull, A. J. 2008 AMS-Dated Late Pleistocene Taiga Vole (Rodentia: Microtus Xanthognathus) from Northeast British Columbia, Canada: A Cautionary Lesson in Chronology. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 45:611–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heintzman, Peter D., Froese, Duane, Ives, John W., Soares, André E. R., Zazula, Grant D., Letts, Brandon, Andrews, Thomas D., et al. 2016 Bison Phylogeography Constrains Dispersal and Viability of the Ice Free Corridor in Western Canada. PNAS 113:8057–8063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hemmings, Christopher Andrew 1998 Probable Association of Paleoindian Artifacts and Mastodon Remains from Sloth Hole, Aucilla River, North Florida. Current Research in the Pleistocene 15:16–18.Google Scholar
Hemmings, Christopher Andrew 2004 The Organic Clovis: A Single Continent-Wide Cultural Adaptation. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainsville.Google Scholar
Heppner, Annalisa 2017 A Feminist Archaeological Approach to the Analysis of the Osseous Tool Suite from the Broken Mammoth Site, Interior Alaska. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska, Anchorage.Google Scholar
Hirasawa, Yu, and Holmes, Charles E. 2017 The Relationship between Microblade Morphology and Production Technology in Alaska from the Perspective of the Swan Point Site. Quaternary International 442:104–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffecker, John F., and Hoffecker, Ian T. 2017 Technological Complexity and the Global Dispersal of Modern Humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 26:285–299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffecker, John F., Holliday, Vance T., Anikovich, Mikhail V., Dudin, Alexander E., Platonova, N. I., Popov, Vladimir V., Levkovskaya, Galina M., et al. 2015 Kostenki 1 and the Early Upper Paleolithic of Eastern Europe. Journal of Archaeological Sciences: Reports 5:307–326.Google Scholar
Holen, Kathleen, and Holen, Steven R. 2009 A Beveled Bone Rod from the Cody Component of the Lindenmeier Site. Current Research in the Pleistocene 26:65–67.Google Scholar
Holmes, Charles E. 1996 Broken Mammoth. In American Beginnings: The Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia, edited by West, Fredrick Hadleigh, pp. 312–318. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Holmes, Charles E. 2001 Tanana River Valley Archaeology. Arctic Anthropology 38(2):154–170.Google Scholar
Holmes, Charles E. 2011 The Beringian and Transitional Periods in Alaska: Technology of the East Beringian Tradition as Viewed from Swan Point. In From the Yenisei to the Yukon: Interpreting Lithic Assemblage Variability in Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Beringia, edited by Goebel, Ted and Buvit, Ian, pp. 179–191. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Howard, Edgar B. 1935 Evidence of Early Man in North America. Museum Journal of the University of Pennsylvania 24(2–3):1–115.Google Scholar
Huang, Xiufeng, Xia, Zi-Yang, Bin, Xiaoyun, He, Guanglin, Guo, Jianxin, Lin, Chaowen, Yin, Lianfei, et al. 2020 Genomic Insights into the Demographic History of Southern Chinese. BioRxiv. DOI:10.1101/2020.11.08.373225.Google Scholar
Hutson, Jarod M., García-Moreno, Alejandro, Noack, Elisabeth S., Turner, Elaine, Villaluenga, Aritza, and Gaudzinski-Windheuser, Sabbine 2018 The Origins of Bone Tool Technology. In proceedings from “Retouching the Palaeolithic: Becoming Human and the Origins of Bone Tool Technology” Conference at Schloss Herrenhausen in Hannover, Germany. Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, Mainz, Germany.Google Scholar
Ives, John W., Froese, Duane, Collins, Matthew, and Brock, Fiona 2014 Radiocarbon and Protein Analyses Indicate an Early Holocene Age for the Osseous Rod from Grenfell, Saskatchewan, Canada. American Antiquity 79:782–793.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenks, Albert Ernest, and Simpson, H. H. 1941 Beveled Artifacts in Florida of the Same Type as Artifacts Found near Clovis, New Mexico. American Antiquity 6:314–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khlopachev, Gennady A. 2013 Cultural and Chronological Attribution of the Objects of Mammoth Ivory from Spy Cave: A Look from Eastern Europe. In Spy Cave: 125 Years of Multidisciplinary Research at the Betche aux Rotches, edited by Rougier, Hélène and Semal, Patrick, pp. 269–285. Société royale belge d'Anthropologie et de Préhistoire, Jemeppe-sur-Sambre, Belgium.Google Scholar
Kielhofer, Jennifer R., Miller, Christopher, Reuther, Joshua, Holmes, Charles, Potter, Ben A., Lanoë, François B., Esdale, Julie, and Crass, Barbara A. 2020 The Micromorphology of Loess-Paleosol Sequences in Central Alaska: A New Perspective on Soil Formation and Landscape Evolution since the Late Glacial Period (c. 16,000 Cal Yr BP to Present). Geoarchaeology 35:701–728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Paul L., Fisher, Daniel C., and Dettman, David 1989 Oxygen Isotope Variation in the Tusks of Extinct Proboscideans: A Measure of Season of Death and Seasonality. Geology 17:515–5192.3.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krasinski, Kathryn E., and Haynes, Gary A. 2010 The Eastern Beringian Chronology of Quaternary Extinctions: A Methodological Approach to Radiocarbon Evaluation. Alaska Journal of Anthropology 8(1):39–60.Google Scholar
Krasinski, Kathryn E., and Yesner, David R. 2008 Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Site Structure in Beringia: A Case Study from the Broken Mammoth Site, Interior Alaska. Alaska Journal of Anthropology 6(1/2):27–41.Google Scholar
Lahren, Larry H., and Bonnichsen, Robson 1974 Bone Foreshafts from a Clovis Burial in Southwestern Montana. Science 186:147–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lanoë, François B., and Holmes, Charles E. 2016 Animals as Raw Material in Beringia: Insights from the Site of Swan Point CZ4B, Alaska. American Antiquity 81:682–696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lanoë, François B., Reuther, Joshua D., and Holmes, Charles E. 2018 Task-Specific Sites and Paleoindian Landscape Use in the Shaw Creek Flats, Alaska. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 25(3):818–838. DOI:10.1007/s10816-017-9360-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lanoë, François B., Reuther, Joshua D., Holmes, Charles E., and Hodgins, Gregory W. L. 2017 Human Paleoecological Integration in Subarctic Eastern Beringia. Quaternary Science Reviews 175:85–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Craig, and Goebel, Ted 2016 The Slotted Antler Points from Trail Creek Caves, Alaska: New Information on Their Age and Technology. PaleoAmerica 2:40–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Llamas, Bastien, Fehren-Schmitz, Lars, Valverde, Guido, Soubrier, Julien, Mallick, Swapan, Rohland, Nadin, Nordenfelt, Susanne, et al. 2016 Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Provides High-Resolution Time Scale of the Peopling of the Americas. Science Advances 2(4). DOI:10.1126/sciadv.1501385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyman, R. Lee, and O'Brien, Michael J. 1999 Prehistoric Osseous Rods from North America: Arguments on Function. North American Archaeologist 20:347–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyman, R. Lee, O'Brien, Michael J., and Hayes, Virgil 1998 A Mechanical and Functional Study of Bone Rods from the Richey–Roberts Clovis Cache, Washington, U.S.A. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:887–906.Google Scholar
Maschenko, Evgeny N., Gablina, Svetlana S., Tesakov, Alexey S., and Simakova, Alexandra N. 2006 The Sevsk Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus Primigenius) Site in Russia: Taphonomic, Biological and Behavioral Interpretations. Quaternary International 142–143:147–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreno-Mayar, J. Víctor, Potter, Ben A., Vinner, Lasse, Steinrücken, Matthias, Rasmussen, Simon, Terhorst, Jonathan, Kamm, John A., et al. 2018 Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan Genome Reveals First Founding Population of Native Americans. Nature 553:203–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrow, Juliet E., and Fiedel, Stuart J. 2006 New Radiocarbon Dates for the Clovis Component of the Anzick Site, Park County, Montana. In Paleoindian Archaeology: A Hemispheric Perspective, edited by Morrow, Juliet and Gnecco, Cristobal, pp. 123–138. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Munyikwa, Kennedy, Rittenour, Tammy M., and Feathers, James K. 2017 Temporal Constraints for the Late Wisconsinan Deglaciation of Western Canada Using Eolian Dune Luminescence Chronologies from Alberta. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 470:147–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, Michael J., Lee Lyman, R., Buchanan, Briggs, and Collard, Mark 2016 A Review of Late Pleistocene North American Bone and Ivory Tools. In Osseous Projectile Weaponry, edited by Langley, Michelle C., pp. 221–235. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, Georges A. 1999 North American Paleoindian Bi-Beveled Bone and Ivory Rods: A New Interpretation. North American Archaeologist 20:81–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Péwé, Troy L. 1965 Middle Tanana River Valley. In Guidebook for Field Conference F, Central and Southcentral Alaska, edited by Péwé, Troy L., Ferrians, O. J., Karlstrom, Thor N. V., and Nichols, Donald R., pp. 36–54. Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys. Nebraska Academy of Science, Lincoln .Google Scholar
Pinotti, Thomaz, Bergström, Anders, Geppert, Maria, Bawn, Matt, Ohasi, Dominique, Shi, Wentao, Lacerda, Daniela R., et al. 2019 Y Chromosome Sequences Reveal a Short Beringian Standstill, Rapid Expansion, and Early Population Structure of Native American Founders. Current Biology 29:149–157.e3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitulko, Vladimir V., Pavlova, Elena Y., and Nikolskiy, Pavel A. 2015 Mammoth Ivory Technologies in the Upper Palaeolithic: A Case Study Based on the Materials from Yana RHS, Northern Yana-Indighirka Lowland, Arctic Siberia. World Archaeology 47:333–389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, Ben A. 2005 Site Structure and Organization in Central Alaska: Archaeological Investigations at Gerstle River. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks.Google Scholar
Potter, Ben A. 2008 Radiocarbon Chronology of Central Alaska: Technological Continuity and Economic Change. Radiocarbon 50:181–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, Ben A., Baichtal, James F., Beaudoin, Alwynne B., Fehren-Schmitz, Lars, Vance Haynes, C., Holliday, Vance T., Holmes, Charles E., et al. 2018 Current Evidence Allows Multiple Models for the Peopling of the Americas. Science Advances 4(8). DOI:10.1126/sciadv.aat5473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, Ben A., Holmes, Charles E., and Yesner, David R. 2013 Technology and Economy among the Earliest Prehistoric Foragers in Interior Eastern Beringia. In Paleoamerican Odyssey, edited by Graf, Kelly E., Ketron, Caroline v., and Waters, Michael R., pp. 81–103. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Potter, Ben A., Irish, Joel D., Reuther, Joshua D., Gelvin-Reymiller, Carol, and Holliday, Vance T. 2011 A Terminal Pleistocene Child Cremation and Residential Structure from Eastern Beringia. Science 331:1058–1062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, Ben A., Irish, Joel D., Reuther, Joshua D., and McKinney, Holly J. 2014 New Insights into Eastern Beringian Mortuary Behavior: A Terminal Pleistocene Double Infant Burial at Upward Sun River. PNAS 111:17060–17065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, Ben A., Reuther, Joshua D., Holliday, Vance T., Holmes, Charles E., Shane Miller, D., and Schmuck, Nicholas 2017 Early Colonization of Beringia and Northern North America: Chronology, Routes, and Adaptive Strategies. Quaternary International 444:36–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prasciunas, Mary M., and Surovell, Todd A. 2015 Reevaluating the Duration of Clovis: The Problem of Non-Representative Radiocarbon. In Clovis: On the Edge of a New Understanding, edited by Smallwood, Ashley M. and Jennings, Thomas A., pp. 21–35. Texas A&M University Press, College Station.Google Scholar
Raghavan, Maanasa, Skoglund, Pontus, Graf, Kelly E., Metspalu, Mait, Albrechtsen, Anders, Moltke, Ida, Rasmussen, Simon, et al. 2014 Upper Palaeolithic Siberian Genome Reveals Dual Ancestry of Native Americans. Nature 505:87–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rainey, Froelich G. 1939 Archaeology of Central Alaska. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 36:355–405.Google Scholar
Redmond, Brian G., and Tankersley, Kenneth B. 2005 Evidence of Early Paleoindian Bone Modification and Use at the Sheridan Cave Site (33WY252), Wyandot County, Ohio. American Antiquity 70:503–526.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimer, Paula J., Austin, William E. N., Bard, Edouard, Bayliss, Alex, Blackwell, Paul G., Ramsey, Christopher Bronk, Butzin, Martin, et al. 2020 The INTCAL20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 Cal KBP). Radiocarbon 62:725–757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riddell, Francis A. 1973 Fossilized California Bone Artifacts. Masterkey 47(1):28–32.Google Scholar
Roberts, Frank H. H. Jr. 1935 A Folsom Complex: A Preliminary Report on Investigations at the Lindenmeier Site in Northern Colorado. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 94(4):1–35.Google Scholar
Roper, Donna C., and Wygal, Brian T. 2003 The Spatial Component of the Western Clovis Chronology. Current Research in the Pleistocene 19:76–78.Google Scholar
Saunders, Jeffrey J., and Daeschler, Edward 1994 Descriptive Analysis and Taphonomical Observations of Culturally Modified Mammoths Excavated at the “Gravel Pit,” Near Clovis, New Mexico. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 145:1–28.Google Scholar
Saunders, Jeffrey J., Haynes, C. Vance, and Stanford, Dennis 1990 A Mammoth-Ivory Semifabricate from Blackwater Locality No. 1, New Mexico. American Antiquity 55:112–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, G. Richard, Schmitz, Kirk, Heim, Kelly N., Paul, Kathleen S., Schomberg, Roman, and Pilloud, Marin A. 2018 Sinodonty, Sundadonty, and the Beringian Standstill Model: Issues of Timing and Migrations into the New World. Quaternary International 466:233–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skoglund, Pontus, and Reich, David 2016 A Genomic View of the Peopling of the Americas. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 41:27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, Heather L., and Goebel, Ted 2018 Origins and Spread of Fluted-Point Technology in the Canadian Ice-Free Corridor and Eastern Beringia. PNAS 115:4116–4121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, Heather L., Kuzminsky, Susan C., and Linderholm, Anna 2020 Discerning Dispersals along the Pacific and Interior Corridors: Contributions of Geometric Morphometrics to the Peopling of the Americas. PaleoAmerica 6:109–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, Jin, Ma, Peng Cheng, Cheng, Hui Zhen, Wang, Chi Zao, Li, Yong Lan, Cui, Yin Qiu, Yao, Hong Bin, et al. 2021 Post-Last Glacial Maximum Expansion of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup C2a-L1373 in Northern Asia and Its Implications for the Origin of Native Americans. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 174:363–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutton, Mark Q. 2018 Paleoindian-Era Osseous Rods: Distribution, Dating, and Function. PaleoAmerica 4:183–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tackney, Justin C., Potter, Ben A., Raff, Jennifer, Powers, Michael, Scott Watkins, W., Warner, Derek, Reuther, Joshua D., Irish, Joel D., and O'Rourke, Dennis H. 2015 Two Contemporaneous Mitogenomes from Terminal Pleistocene Burials in Eastern Beringia. PNAS 112:13833–13838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1997 Sheriden: A Clovis Cave Site in Eastern North America. Geoarchaeology 12:713–724.3.0.CO;2-1>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 1998 The Crook County Clovis Cache. Current Research in the Pleistocene 15:87–88.Google Scholar
Tankersley, Kenneth B. 2004 The Concept of Clovis and the Peopling of the Americas. In The Settlement of the American Continents: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Human Biogeography, edited by Barton, C. Michael, Clark, Geoffrey A., Yesner, David R., and Pearson, Georges A., pp. 49–63. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Trapani, Josh, and Fisher, Daniel C. 2003 Discriminating Proboscidean Taxa Using Features of the Schreger Pattern in Tusk Dentin. Journal of Archaeological Science 30(4):429–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vereshchagin, Nikolai K., and Tikhonov, Alexei 1986 A Study of Mammoth Tusks. Proceedings of the Zoological Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences 149:3–14.Google Scholar
White, James M., Mathewes, Rolf W., and Mathews, W. H. 1985 Late Pleistocene Chronology and Environment of the “Ice-Free Corridor” of Northwestern Alberta. Quaternary Research 24:173–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiedmer, Michael, Montgomery, David R., Gillespie, Alan R., and Greenberg, Harvey 2010 Late Quaternary Megafloods from Glacial Lake Atna, Southcentral Alaska, U.S.A. Quaternary Research 73:413–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilke, Philip J., Flenniken, J. Jeffrey, and Ozbun, Terry L. 1991 Clovis Technology at the Anzick Site, Montana. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 13:242–272.Google Scholar
Wilmeth, Roscoe 1968 A Fossilized Bone Artifact from Southern Saskatchewan. American Antiquity 33:100–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilmsen, Edwin N., and Roberts, Frank H. H. Jr. 1978 Lindenmeier, 1934–1974: Concluding Report on Investigations. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Wormington, H. Marie 1970 Comments on Early Man in North America, 1960–1970. Arctic 8:83–91.Google Scholar
Wygal, Brian T. 2018 The Peopling of Eastern Beringia and Its Archaeological Complexities. Quaternary International 466:284–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wygal, Brian T., Krasinski, Kathryn E., Holmes, Charles E., and Crass, Barbara A. 2018 Holzman South: A Late Pleistocene Archaeological Site along Shaw Creek, Tanana Valley, Interior Alaska. PaleoAmerica 4:90–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yesner, David R. 1994 Subsistence Diversity and Hunter-Gatherer Strategies in Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene Beringia: Evidence from the Broken Mammoth Site, Big Delta, Alaska. Current Research in the Pleistocene 11:154–156.Google Scholar
Yesner, David R. 2001 Human Dispersal into Interior Alaska: Antecedent Conditions, Mode of Colonization, and Adaptations. Quaternary Science Reviews 20:315–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar