This case study documents the start-up of a successful alternative dairy farm in Wisconsin. Initially the vision was to establish a 97-ha biodynamic farm with dairy and cash cropping. Low milk prices throughout most of 1991 and the heavy work load associated with conventional dairying forced the farm family to look for alternative strategies. They experimented with management-intensive grazing in 1992, and by spring 1994 had seeded their entire farm to sod. The work load still was too heavy, so they switched to seasonal dairying and outwintering of their dry stock, which reduced the daily midwinter work load from 12 to 3.5 hours. By the end of 1995, yearly net farm income from operations had risen from $21,500 (1990 and 1991) to $54,000 (1994 and 1995). The farm family, with its alternative approach (biodynamic, grass-based, seasonal milking) weathered the stresses of entering dairy farming at a time when entry rates were very low and existing dairy farmers faced substantial financial pressure. The grassbased system required low purchased feed inputs ($300 per cow) and nearly reached equilibrium in the whole-farm nutrient budget. Good herd management has maintained high productivity (rolling herd average of 17,000 lbs) and excellent herd health. Renting the farm and managing money carefully have resulted in a low debt load ($73 per cow). This study illustrates the complexities and adjustments associated with the initiation of an alternative farm business.

Cover crop performance depends largely on management factors that must be customized to particular farm situations and, therefore, is suited for on-farm research, with farmers involved in both management and evaluation. Cover crop sequences that were successful in a research station study were tested over a variety of soils and management strategies in collaboration withfarmers. The two-year cover crop sequences consisted of a short-season crop followed by a cover crop in year one and corn in year two. The cover crops themselves were evaluated by their agronomic and economic performance and their acceptance by farmers. Four cover crop systems (companionseeded red clover, sequentially seeded hairy vetch, sequentially seeded oat, and fallow) were compared for ground cover, above-ground biomass and above-ground nitrogen yield, subsequent corn grain yield, and N fertilizer replacement value (N-FRV). Cover crops were essential for erosion control following vegetable crops and tillage, but were not necessary following small grains. Companion-seeded red clover produced the most ground cover, yielded up to 133 kg N/ha, and had a higher average N-FRV than sequentially seeded hairy vetch on sandy loam soils, but was not preferred by farmers who harvested small grain straw as well as grain. Sequentially seeded hairy vetch gave excellent cover when no-till seeded, produced more than 125 kg N/ha in half the siteyears, and had a higher average N-FRV than companion-seeded red clover on silt loam soils. First-year N-FRV for the legume cover crops averaged 67 kg N/ha over both soil types. The participating farmers indicated that their decisions to adopt cover crops would be based primarily on their need for ground cover, and secondarily on the profitability of using cover crops as an N source. However, when valued solely as an N source for the next year's crop (and not for any potential long-term benefits), cover crops were not an economical alternative to N fertilizer. We suggest focusing future cover crop research and extension efforts on outreach to farmers growing crops that do not provide sufficient ground cover, such as short-season vegetable crops, and optimizing the cover crop system to maximize its erosion control benefits and increase its profitability over N fertilizer.

The most widely used and successful cultural practices for managing plantparasitic nematodes are resistant cultivars and some elements of cropping systems, such as rotation crops, cover crops, or nematode-antagonistic crops. Exclusion and sanitation practices, such as use of nematode-free planting material, site selection, and weed management, are useful in limiting infestations. Soil solarization, organic amendments, biological control, fallow, flooding, timing of planting dates, or tillage practices may be helpful in some areas, but additional research is needed to optimize their use. Most management methods emphasize reduction of nematode populations, but improvement of crop tolerance to nematodes should not be overlooked. For their successful use, most of these alternative methods require detailed knowledge of nematode and plant biology and ecology, and it may be necessary to integrate several practices for maximum nematode suppression. Although the basic principles of nematode management are generally known, detailed data often are lacking on specific combinations of nematodes and host crop cultivars. Consequently, the availability of such data will likely determine whether nematodes can be managed successfully in a particular situation.

Potato acreage and total production in Maine have declined steadily since the 1960s. In 1991, a University of Maine research team established a large-scale, long-term, comparative study of three factors that form the foundation of productive potato cropping systems: soil management, pest management, and variety choice. This study, the Potato Ecosystem Project, included 96 main plots (5.8 ha total) and near-by “component studies.” The project contrasted amended vs. unamended soil management strategies; conventional vs. reduced-input vs. bio-intensive pest management strategies; and disease and stress susceptible vs. tolerant potato varieties. Given recent concerns over resistance to pesticides and increasing costs of agricultural chemical inputs, the reduced-input and bio-intensive pest management systems provided encouraging results. Weed growth was similar in the conventional and reduced-input systems. Colorado potato beetle thresholds were exceeded less often and their densities were lower in the bio-intensive system than in the reduced-input and conventional systems. Lady beetles, which are major aphid predators, were more abundant in the bio-intensive pest management system compared with the reduced-input and conventional systems in 5 of the 6 years. Tuber yield and quality were maintained at a high level in the reduced-input system, although difficulties with plant disease, nutrient and weed management contributed to significantly lower yields in the bio-intensive pest management system. Economic analysis indicated that from 1993 to 1996, the reduced-input system had a greater return over variable cost (avg. $973 ha-1) than the conventional (avg. $890ha-1) and bio-intensive pest management systems (avg. $578ha-1). The amended soil management system achieved rapid improvements in soil quality: soil organic matter, water stable aggregates, potassium, and soluble inorganic phosphorus contents increased while requirements for synthetic fertilizers were reduced. These improvements in soil quality enhanced late-season crop vigor, canopy duration and tuber quality, and increased yields by 13% and 30% over the unamended system in 1994 and 1995, respectively, but not in 1996. Improved crop vigor in the amended soil management system also benefited weed control efforts by encouraging a more weed-suppressive potato crop. In the biointensive pest management system, in which weeds were controlled mechanically, the amended soil management system had less weed biomass than the unamended soil management system in 1994 and 1995. Conversely, the amended soil management system consistently increased flea beetle populations and, in one of two years, the incidence of Rhizoctonia. The choice of potato variety also affected pest dynamics. Total aphid density (all aphid species considered together) and almost all disease ratings were higher on ‘Superior’ than ‘Atlantic’ potato.

A key determinant of whether livestock manure is an asset or liability for agricultural producers and for society more generally is the amount produced relative to the nearby farmland area to which it can be economically transported for application. The objectives of this study are to estimate manure N and P loadings on the cropland and rangeland associated with 78 feedlot farm operations in South Dakota and to determine if they are greater for larger feedlots.

A substantial fraction of the feedlot operators studied apply plant-available N and P in livestock manure at rates that exceed crop and grass fertility requirements, and intensity of manure nutrient loadings on cropland is strongly and positively related to feedlot size. These findings raise a warning regarding possible nonpoint-source pollution of vulnerable water resources from manure produced by fed cattle in larger feedlots.

This study evaluated the profitability of several cropping systems during a 10-year period of an experiment comparing rotations and levels of purchased inputs. Continuous corn or sorghum, corn/wheat-soybean (2-year), and corn/wheat-soybean/corn/clover hay (4-year) were managed with recommended fertilizer and pesticide rates and no-till planting (C) or with N from legumes, conventional tillage, and cultivation for weed control (L). Medium input management (M: medium rate of N and banded herbicides) was included during years 5 through 10. Generally, corn was the least profitable crop, regardless of input level or type of rotation. Rotating crops improved profit more than did adding inputs to continuous corn. With L, average annual profit was: continuous corn, -$64/ha; 2-year rotation, $135/ha; and 4-year rotation, $158/ha. With C, the 2-year rotation increased profit to $165/ha from -$119/ha with continuous corn. The increased profit with rotations was due to greater profits from wheat, soybean, and hay offsetting low or negative profit from corn. Sorghum (grown only in monoculture) was more profitable with L ($34/ha) than with C (-$20/ha). During the 6 years when all input levels were compared, the order of average profit was M>L>C with continuous corn. Generally, profit was not increased by M compared with L in the 2-and 4-year rotations. With L, the cost of weed control was 20% of that for C with corn and 44% with soybean. Cost of N from fertilizer was $0.66/kg, but cost of N from crimson clover (seed and planting costs) averaged $0.92/kg when clover was drilled, $1.27/kg when aerially seeded, and $0.16/kg when naturally reseeded.

Conventional and organic semidwarf Granny Smith apple production systems were compared during three years of conversion to certified organic management. Because of differences in fruit load with hand thinning compared with chemical thinning, apple tonnage was higher in the organic production system (OPS) in 1989 and 1991. The organic system was higher than the conventional system in number and weight of fruit per tree, but smaller in average fruit size. Using grower-receivedfarmgate premiums of 38% (1990) and 33% (1991) for unsorted, certified organic apples, comparative cost accounting showed greater net return per hectare for the OPS. The OPS required higher material and labor inputs in all years.

Greater terminal growth in the conventional production system (CPS) in 1991 was the only significant difference in growth indicators between systems. N was generally higher in leaf and new wood bark tissues in the CPS. P was generally higher in the leaf and new wood bark tissues in the OPS. No decline in yield was associated with increased weed biomass in the OPS. There was no difference in fruit damage caused by codling moth between production system treatments (codling moth granulosis virus and pheromone-based mating disruption vs. synthetic insecticide). In 1991, secondary lepidopterous pests (apple leafroller and orange tortrix) caused greater fruit scarring in the CPS. In all years, tentiform leafminers caused greater leaf damage in the CPS. Apple leafhopper density and leaf damage were greater in the OPS in 1990 and 1991.

Soil nutrient levels showed few significant changes during conversion to organic management. Soil bulk density and water holding capacity were useful indicators of changes in soil physical characteristics. Potentially mineralizable nitrogen andmicrobial biomass-C were more sensitive indicators of system change than total N or organic C. Two soil biological ratios, the respiratory ratio and biomass-C/total organic-C, were similar in the two production systems. Earthworm biomass and abundance increased in the OPS in the third year. The introduction of Lumbricus terrestris into the OPS greatly increased litter incorporation rates.

Nitrate contamination of surface water resulting from inputs of agricultural drainage water is a widespread problem. To learn whether alternative agricultural practices might ameliorate this problem, we measured NO-3 in water draining from three neighboring fields from 1970 to 1992. Drainage water from two fields fertilized with N exclusively as composted and liquid manure had NO-3 concentrations less than 2 ppm (20% of the Public Health Service recommended limit for drinking water). When these fields were converted to a corn/soybean rotation fertilized with anhydrous ammonia, NO-3 concentration increased about 7- to 10-fold. On a third field, corn was always fertilized with anhydrous ammonia. Changing this field from a rotation of corn, oats and hay to corn/soybean and increasing the rate of N fertilization by about 18% almost doubled the NO-3 concentration in the drainage water. The corn/soybean rotation most prevalent in the Corn Belt today resulted in high NO-3 concentrations in the drainage water, while the alternative system prevented NO-3 problems.

Synthetic inputs have become the norm in cash grain production in the Midwest U.S., but do they really increase profitability compared with low-input production methods? This study reports a comparison of cash grain yields, quality and profitability under two management systems, low-input practices and conventional practices. The crop sequence was corn, soybean, and wheat - medium red clover green manure. Low-input practices included crop rotation, manure, and mechanical weed control. Conventional practices added starter fertilizer, side-dress N for corn, early spring topdress N for wheat and herbicides to the low-input practices. The conventional inputs increased yields in each of the five growing seasons, 1992–96. Weather, N fertilizer and weed control appeared to explain much of the yield and grain quality variation. Soil P and K levels were maintained or increased by manure use. Plant foliar analysis indicated that soil macronutrients were mostly in the sufficient range for both management systems. Economic return in excess of the additional cost of the fertilizer and herbicides averaged $172.63 ha−1 for soybean, $165.63 ha−1 for corn and minus $19.19 ha−1 for wheat over the five-year study. Fertilizer and herbicides did pay with corn and soybean, but not with wheat under the conditions of this study.

An annual legume cover crop was evaluated in pecan orchards to increase coccinellids that would reduce pecan aphids. Treatments were a ‘Dixie’ crimson clover and hairy vetch mixture and a grass sod. Coccinellids were abundant on the legume ground covers, but coccinellid density in the tree canopy was rarely affected by ground cover treatment. There were substantial differences between the coccinellid species collected from the legumes and from the trees. In Oklahoma, Olla v-nigrum (Mulsant) and Cycloneda munda (Say) were the main species in the trees, while Hippodamia convergens Guerin, Coccinella septempunctata L, and Coleomegilla maculata lengi Timberlake were dominant species in the legumes. In Georgia, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) was the dominant species in the trees, and C. septempunctata in the legumes. Pecan aphids at two Oklahoma sites usually were not affected by cover crop treatment, but at the Georgia site, early-season aphids frequently were lower with a legume cover crop than with a grass sod. The accumulated effect of all aphid predators and parasitoids attracted to the legume aphids may have reduced the density of the pecan aphid.

This study examined how one aspect of intensive cultivation, double digging by hand (loosening the planting bed to 50 cm deep), contributed to crop productivity and nutrient uptake in bush beans (1994 and 1995) and red beets (1995 only). Comparison beds were prepared with the soil cultivated to 25 cm (single dig) and 6 cm (surface cultivation). Although there were significant differences (1994 beans) between the surface cultivated beds and other cultivation types for leaf mass and chlorophyll content, there were no significant differences in the total mass of beans (whole fruit) produced. There were no significant differences in beet green or root (edible portion) biomass among cultivation methods. Levels of Ca, Mg, and K in the bean fruits and beet roots were not significantly different among cultivation methods. This study demonstrated that deep cultivation significantly alters the soil profile as measured by penetrometer resistance, but that this change does not necessarily alter productivity or nutrient uptake. We suggest that deep hand tillage has little effect on crop productivity in well-watered and moderate to high fertility soils. These results are similar to those found in mechanically subsoiled systems.

Organic farming systems differ fundamentally from conventional ones in their primary focus on management practices that promote and enhance ecological harmony. Organic farmers also tend to have a different socioeconomic profile. In this study, we summarize average socioeconomic characteristics and production practices of a national sample of about 300 certified organic vegetable growers from 14 states and compare them to a large sample of about 6,900 conventional vegetable growers. We also examine the specific materials used by organic growers for pest and nutrient management.

Organic vegetable growers tend to be younger, more educated, less experienced in farming, and less likely to have grown up on a farm than conventional vegetable growers, and tend to operate smaller farms. Over three-quarters of the organic vegetable growers surveyed have small operations (less than 10 acres of vegetables), and they are much younger and work fewer days in off-farm jobs than conventional small growers. In contrast to conventional marketing practices, nearly half the surveyed organic growers, and the majority of small ones, market their vegetables directly to consumers through farmers' markets and other direct marketing channels.

The organic growers rely primarily on traditional organic processes such as green manuring (legumes), animal manuring, composting, and crop rotation to supply crop nutrients, and on cultural and biological tools, including pest-resistant plant varieties, water management techniques, adjustment of planting and harvesting dates, and beneficial organisms, for pest management. Animal meal, fish products, and lime are their most frequently reported supplemental nutrient sources (14, 20 and 28%, respectively, reported using these materials), and Pyrellin EC and petroleum-based soaps were the most frequently reported supplemental pest management materials (used by 6 and 8%, respectively). The pest and nutrient materials used by the organic growers are generally consistent with current guidelines of major certification organizations that provide services to organic growers, and there is high consistency among those guidelines and national recommendations for most of these materials.

With the growing concern about the impact of agriculture on water quality and heightened interest in managing agricultural by-products economically, the use of composting by U.S. farmers is increasing. Over 8,000 farms are now composting animal mortalities, manure, crop residues, and selected organic materials from communities and industries. At least 75% of farm composting operations are composting poultry mortalities. Based on discussions with contacts in leading agricultural states and organizations, this paper provides examples of technical and economic incentive programs encouraging farmers to adopt composting as a way to manage farm by-products. These programs have been established largely by the public sector, including state agencies, public universities, USDA, and USEPA. However, they are often initiated by or conducted in partnership with the private sector entities such as farms, livestock and poultry product companies, and composting businesses. Examples of incentive programs include research and demonstration projects, extension educational programs, technical standards, regulatory incentives, cost-sharing, financial grants, and low-interest loans. Many projects have succeeded in expanding the practice of composting among farms. For example, the now common practice of composting poultry mortalities can be traced to research and educational programs at the Universities of Maryland and Delaware, which were followed by a national technical standard adopted by the USDA. Similar success stories are apparent in other composting incentive programs, such as for composting of swine mortalities in Missouri, dairy manure in Michigan, and non-farm materials in California and Pennsylvania.

The effects of contour live barriers of vetiver and pennisetum on soil erosion were studied on four small farms in south central Honduras. Paired plots were installed and soil erosion measured by changes in the soil surface level of transects 0.3 and 6.0 m up the slope from the barrier. After three years, transects 0.3 m above the barriers significantly retained eroded soil compared with control transects. Soil accumulation by barriers ranged from 2.6 to 11.2 cm, and natural terrace formation (the difference between the barrier and corresponding control transect) ranged from 5.2 to 13.8 cm. No difference was detected between barrier and control for the transects 6.0 m above the barrier. Deposition in front of the barriers and reduction in surface rilling were apparent to farmers. Erosion from up slope on the barrier plots and from both transects in the control sections was not obvious. Direct measurement and farmer observation of sediment deposition by live barriers will help evaluate farmer-identified species for future use. The deposition helps farmers become aware of sheet erosion before the effects of soil degradation on crop yields become grossly apparent and soil fertility restoration becomes too costly for small-scale farmers.

Double-cropping provides a method of diversifying the rotation, maximizing production, and increasing the profit potential of a cropping system. We assessed agronomic and economic performance of five alternative crops in comparison to the no-till wheat-soybean double-cropping system prevalent in the southern Corn Belt. Canola has shown potential as a profitable winter crop, but its effects on the subsequent crop in a no-till double-crop system required further study. Amaranth, buckwheat, sunflower, and pearl millet were planted after the harvest of canola or wheat, or after fallow. Alternative double-crop grain yield, production costs, and net returns were compared with those of double-crop soybean.

Wheat yielded more than canola. Sunflower grain yields did not differ significantly after winter-crop treatments at any site. Yields of amaranth, buckwheat, soybean, and pearl millet differed after winter crops at some sites. At three study yield levels, net returns were positive and greatest for double-crop wheat-amaranth, canola-amaranth, wheat-sunflower, and canola-sunflower systems. All double-crop systems except canolapearl millet had positive net returns at median study yield levels. Low or negative net returns resulted from the combination of low yield and low price for some double crops. Canola was shown to be an economically feasible alternative to wheat in a doublecropping system for central and southern Missouri. Buckwheat and sunflower were shown to be agronomically and economically competitive alternatives to soybean following either canola or winter wheat, with buckwheat most valuable in late-season planting conditions.