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The Alexandretta Dispute

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 April 2017

Majid Khadduri
Majid Khadduri*
Affiliation:
Baghdad Higher Teachers College
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Extract

The Franco-Turkish dispute over the Sanjak of Alexandretta presents another notable case of the consequences of the acceptance of an imperfect settlement at Lausanne between the Allies and Turkey following the first World War. The most important dispute that arose from the Lausanne settlement related to the Vilayat of Mosul, a district comprising the whole northern section of Iraq and valuable for its oil and strategic position, in which Turkey challenged Great Britain's interests and prestige in Iraq.That dispute was successfully settled by the Council of the League of Nations in 1925 in favour of Iraq. Ten years later another dispute arose from the imperfect settlement of Lausanne which concerned this time Turkey's frontiers with Syria. By then the international situation had deteriorated and the League's prestige was undermined. France, the Mandatory Power for Syria, was in need of Turkey's friendship and consequently her bargaining position was weaker. The dispute was eventually won by Turkey.

Type
Research Article
Information
American Journal of International Law , Volume 39 , Issue 3 , July 1945 , pp. 406 - 425
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of International Law 1945

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References

1 See Quincy Wright, “The Mosul Dispute,” in this JOURNAL, Vol. 20 (1926), pp. 453-464.

2 Henry H. Cumming, Anglo-French Rivalry in the Near East, Oxford, 1938, Chap. XlII; Harold Nicolson, Curzon: The Last Phase, London, 1934, p. 281 and ff.

3 Speech delivered by Ghazi Mustapha Kemal in October, 1927, published in Leipzig in 1929, pp. 523-527; John Bell, “Peace-Making in the East,” in Fortnightly Review, Vol. 112, N.S. (1922), p. 891.

4 H. W. V. Temperley (ed.), History of the Peace Conference of Paris, London, 1924, Vol. VI, p. 33; Cumming, work cited, p. 141.

4a See text of the agreement in Temperley, work cited, Vol. VI, pp. 606-608.

5 The population of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, according to the official French estimate, is 220,000; 87,000 of them are Turks. According to an unofficial French estimate, the total population is 153,798; the Turks constitute from 35 to 40 per cent of the total. See Paul Jacquot, Antioch, Beyrouth, 1931, Vol. I, p. 29.

6 Treaty of Peace with Turkey and other Instruments, in Great Britain, Treaty Series, No. 16 (1923), Cmd. 1929, London, 1923, p. 15.

7 League of Nations, Minutes of the Permanent Mandates Commission, Fifth Session, p. 101; Arnold J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1925, Oxford, 1927, Vol. 1, p. 458.

8 Q. Wright, “The Bombardment of Damascus,” in this Journal, Vol. 20 (1926), pp. 263-280; M. Khadduri, The Syrian Question, Mosul, 1934, p. III and ff.

9 Arnold J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1928, Oxford, 1929, pp. 332-333; Survey of International Affairs, 1930, Oxford, 1931, pp. 314-316.

10 A Turkish province adjacent to the Sanjak of Alexandretta.

11 Paul de Veou, Désastre d'Alexandrette, Paris, 1938, p. 47.

12 Based on this writer's interviews with Arabs of the Sanjak of Alexandretta.

13 Reported to the writer by Sayid Naji Shawkat, the Iraqi Minister to Turkey.

14 Same.

15 Art. 3 of the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. See also Quincy Wright, Mandates Under the League of Nations (Chicago, 1930), p. 122.

16 La Question d'Alexandrette et d'Antioch (Ankara, 1936), I,p. 20; League of Nations, Official Journal (January, 1937), p. 42.

17 League of Nations, Official Journal (November, 1936), p. 1181.

18 “First White Book on the Question of Alexandretta and Antioch,” in League of Nations, Official Journal, January, 1937, p. 41.

19 Same, pp. 41-42.

20 “Second White Book on the Question of Alexandretta and Antioch,” in League of Nations, Official Journal, January, 1937, p. 43.

21 Same, p. 44.

22 See text of the note in same, pp. 50-51.

23 “Second White Book” (League of Nations, Official Journal, January, 1937), p. 52.

24 League of Nations, Official Journal (January, 1937), p.36

25 Same, p. 36.

26 See Dr. Aras’ speech in League of Nations, Official Journal, January, 1937, pp. 22-23.

27 See M. Viénot's speech in League of Nations, Official Journal, January, 1937, pp. 24-29.

28 League of Nations, Official Journal (January, 1937), pp. 31-32.

29 Only a summary of the memorandum is published in the Official Journal of the League of Nations (February, 1937, p. 118); the full text is to be found in Werner Frauendienst, Weltgeschichte der Gegenwart in Dokumenten, 1936-1937, Essen, 1938, Band 4, pp. 405-£07.

30 Dr. Aras had already given a similar speech on November 27,1936 (Iskenderon-Antahya Meselesi, No. III, Ankara, 1936, pp. 2-10). See also Arnold J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1936, Oxford, 1937, p. 776.

31 Qonyah is the headquarters of the Turkish Army, Southern Command.

32 Arnold J. Toynbee, work cited, pp. 776-777.

33 See text of the letter in Paul de Véou, pp. 170-175.

34 See text of the report in League of Nations, Official Journal, February, 1937, pp. 118-120. See also speech of the accredited representatives of Turkey, Rumania, England, and Russia, in support of the proposals (same, pp. 120-123).

35 Interview with Jamil Mardam Beg, head of the delegation.

36 See the report of the Committee of Experts in League of Nations, Official Journal, May- June, 1937, pp. 573-589.

37 Same, p. 333.

38 See texts of the agreements in Frauendienst, pp. 413-415, 415-416.

39 Arnold J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1936, Oxford, 1937, p. 779.

40 It is not correct to argue that the Arabs of the Sanjak had acquiesced in the settlement (Toynbee, pp. 778, 779). The writer has talked with various Arabs who left the Sanjak and who gave evidence of the strong opposition manifested at the time.

41 The memorandum is unpublished. The writer made use of its contents by kind permission of Prime Minister Jamil Mardam Beg.

42 Hershey uses the inaccurate term “international protectorate” for any “weak or inferior state” which has “been placed under the protection of a more powerful one.” He does not confine the use of the term to a territory which has been placed under the collective protection of more than one Power (Amos S. Hershey, Essentials of International Public Law, New York, 1923, p. 107). There seems to be a need to distinguish between a territory protected by one Power and one under the collective protection,of several powers. The term “collective protectorate” may be used to define the latter case.

43 Mention may be made of the contemplated international protectorate of Palestine under the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) by Great Britain, France and Russia. But there was no idea at the time of international supervision. See text of the agreement in Temperley, H. W. V., History of the Peace Conference of Paris, London, 1924, Vol. VI, p. 16.Google Scholar

44 Quincy Wright, Mandates Under the League of Nations, Chicago, 1930, pp. 119 and ff.

45 Temperley, Vol. II, p. 232; W. E. Hocking, The Spirit of World Politics, New York, 1932, p. 227.

46 Jan C. Smuts, The League of Nations, A Practical Suggestion, New York, 1919, pp. and 14 ff.

47 “The post-war mandate, it has been said, differs from the pre-war protectorate over native people in that the mandatory is a protector with a conscience, and with a keeper of his conscience“: Norman Bentwich, “Colonies and Mandates,” in The Contemporary Review, No. 841 (January 1936), p. 43.

48 “What sharply distinguishes the Mandatory system from all such international arrangements of the past, is the unqualified right of intervention possessed by the League of Nations. The mandatories act on its behalf. They have not sovereign powers, but are responsible to the League for the execution of the terms of the mandate“: Temperley, Vol. II, p. 236.

49 See text of the Regulations in League of Nations, Official Journal, February, 1938, pp. 137-144.

50 See the Arab point of view in al-Uruba (an Arabic paper in Aatioch), November 25, 1937; January 26, 28, 29, 30, and February 2, 1938.

51 See text of the Turkish letters in League of Nations, Official Journal, February, 1938,1938, pp. 132-134, 134-135.

52 See text of Mr. Reid's letters in same, pp. 135-136, 148-151.

53 Report of Sayid Nabih al-Adhma to the Syrian Government, dated February 19, 1938 (unpublished).

54 Interview with Arabs from Alexandretta. See also A. J. Toynbee, Survey of International Affairs, 1938, Oxford, 1941, Vol. I, p. 484.

55 France recognised in this agreement further Turkish claims in order to strengthen her position in the Eastern Mediterranean. Turkey, however, declared that she did not claim sovereignty over the Sanjak.

56 Reported to the writer by Sayid Naji Shawkat, Iraq Minister to Turkey. The writer has been shown the original draft project in Dr. Aras’ handwriting which Sayid Naji Shawkat has kept for himself.

57 Interview with Sayid Jamil Mardam Beg, Syrian Prime Minister, and Sa'dullah el- Jabiri Beg, Foreign Minister.

58 Interview with Sayid Naji Shawkat.

59 See note 5, above.

60 The Statute as a matter of fact permitted the use of Arabic as well.

61 See Yeni Gön (a Turkish paper published in Antioch), September 3, 1938.

62 Tayfur Bey Sokman was a personal friend of President Atattirk. He sent a telegram of thanks to Atatürk after his election; the latter replied that he will “look at Hatay with consideration and love“; Yeni Gön, September 6, 1938.

63 Hatay is the Turkish name of the ancient Hittites who were, according to the Turks of Turkish origin. Historians, however, are of the opinion that the Hittites were an Indo- European race. See James H. Breasted, Ancient Times, Boston, 1935 (2nd ed.), pp. 244- 245.

64 The majority of the inhabitants of Antioch speak Turkish while those of Alexandretta speak Arabic.

65 See Philip W. Ireland, “Turkish Foreign Policy after Munich,” in The Political Quarterly, Vol. X (1939), pp. 185-201.

66 See text of the agreement in League of Nations, Official Journal, July-August, 1939, pp. 356-360.

67 H. Beeley in A. J. Toynbee, Surevy of International Affairs, 1938, Oxford, 1941, Vol. I, p. 489.

68 Wright, p. 122.

69 League of Nations, Official Journal, April, 1926, pp. 522-523.

70 League of Nations, Minutes of the Permanent Mandates Commission, Eighth (extraordinary) Session, 1926, p. 204.

71 League of Nations, Minutes of the Permanent Mandates Commission, 36th Session, 1939, p. 222.

72 Same, p. 223.