Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-qs9v7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-10T12:20:39.990Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Communicable Disease and Mental Health: Restrictions of the Person

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 February 2021

Frank P. Grad
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Laws for the protection of public health control either the environment, as in the case of sanitation or air pollution regulations, or human conduct. This Article deals with limitations imposed upon individuals in order to prevent the spread of communicable disease and the harm resulting from mental illness. The restraints discussed include compulsory examination and immunization, and forms of compulsory detention or commitment.

This Article is a revised chapter of the author's Public Health Law Manual, first published by the American Public Health Association in 1965. The Manual is intended to help public health professionals to understand the law relevant to their practice, and to apply it more effectively.

Type
Articles
Information
American Journal of Law & Medicine , Volume 12 , Issue 3-4: Public Health & The Law , 1986 , pp. 381 - 403
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics and Boston University 1986

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Excerpted with permission from the forthcoming PUBLIC HEALTH LAW MANUAL, Second Edition, by Frank Grad, published by the American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

It is with great pleasure that I dedicate the revised version of Chapter 6 to my friend and colleague William J. Curran, with whom I share many views on the role of law in the application of public health controls and the provision of public health services.

References

1 OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3701.24 (Baldwin 1986).

2 N.C. GEN. STAT. § 130A-134 (1986); see also D.C. CODE ANN. § 6-117(a) (Supp. 1986); N. J. ADMIN. CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.2 (1985). Lists of reportable diseases often include smallpox, diptheria, typhoid fever, venereal disease and rubella.

3 CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 3125 (West Supp. 1987); N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2101 (Consol. 1986); N.C. GEN. STAT. § 130A-135 (1986); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3701.24 (Baldwin 1986); OR. REV. STAT. § 434.020 (1985); N.J. ADMIN. CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.3 (1985); 28 PA. ADMIN. CODE § 27.21 (Shepard's 1980).

4 CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 3125 (West Supp. 1987); N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW §§ 2101, 2105 (Consol. 1986); N.J. ADMIN. CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.4 (1985); PA. ADMIN. CODE § 27.24 (Shepard's 1980).

5 CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 3125 (West Supp. 1987); PA. ADMIN. CODE § 27.26 (Shepard's 1980).

6 N.C. GEN. STAT. § 130A-136 (1986); N.J. ADMIN. CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.5 (1985).

7 TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 4419b-1, § 3.03 (Vernon Supp. 1988); PA. ADMIN. CODE §27.23 (Shepard's 1980).

8 KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 214.010 (Michie/Bobbs-Merrill 1985); OR. REV. STAT. §434.010 (1985); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 4419b-1, § 3.03 (Vernon Supp. 1988).

9 N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2102 (Consol. 1986); N.C. GEN. STAT. § 130A-139 (1986); N.J. ADMIN. CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.10 (1985); PA. ADMIN. CODE § 27.22 (Shepard's 1980).

10 In New Jersey, for example, suspicion or diagnosis of measles, smallpox and venereal disease are reportable immediately by telephone. N.J. ADMIN CODE tit. 8, § 57-1.2(B) (1985).

11 See table at note 74, infra.

12 Id.

13 E.g., ILL. ANN. STAT. cli. 56 1/2, para. 308 (Smith-Hurd 1985); N.D. CENT. CODE. § 19-02-20 (Supp. 1987); WASH. REV. CODE ANN. §§ 19.32.110, 69.12.070, 69.20.095 (1984 & Supp. 1985).

14 McKenna v. Fargo, 451 F. Supp. 1355, 1381 (D.N.J. 1978).

15 Brown v. Brannon, 399 F. Supp. 133, 138-39 (M.D.N.C. 1975). The ordinance was probably aimed at questionable massage parlors.

16 E.g., 42 U.S.C. § 264 (Supp. 1985); CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 3051 (West Supp. 1987); FLA. STAT. ANN. § 384.04 (West Supp. 1985); N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2300 (3) (Consol. 1986); N.D. CENT. CODE § 23-07-07(1) (Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 35, § 521.7 (Purdon Supp. 1985); S.C. CODE ANN. § 44-29-90 (Law. Co-op. 1985); NEW YORK CITY HEALTH CODE § 11.51(b) (1987).

17 Huffman v. District of Columbia, 39 A.2d 558, 561 (D.C. Mun. App. 1944).

18 Ex parte Arata, 52 Cal. App. 380, 198 P. 814 (1921); Wragg. v. Griffin, 185 Iowa 243, 170 N.W. 400 (1919).

19 Ex parte King, 128 Cal. App. 27, 16 P.2d 694 (1932); Hill v. Hilbert, 92 Okla. Crim. 169, 222 P.2d 166 (1950); Welch v. Shepherd, 165 Kan. 394, 196 P.2d 235 (1948).

20 Ex parte Shepard, 51 Cal. App. 49, 195 P. 1077 (1921); Wragg v. Griffin, 185 Iowa 243, 170 N.W. 400 (1919).

21 Huffman v. District of Columbia, 39 A.2d 558, 561 (D.C. Mun. App. 1944).

22 People ex rel. Baker v. Strautz, 386 Ill. 360, 54 N.E.2d 441 (1944).

23 Irwin v. Arrendale, 117 Ga. App. 1, 5-6, 159 S.E.2d 719, 724 (1967).

24 N.J. STAT. ANN. § 26:4-36 (1987); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.08 (Baldwin 1982); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 35, § 521.7 (Purdon Supp. 1985).

25 Reynolds v. McNichols, 488 F.2d 1378, 1383 (10th Cir. 1973). In a context unrelated to communicable disease, though on analogous principles, the U.S. Supreme Court has approved blood tests for persons suspected of driving while intoxicated, even when the person is unconscious, Breithaupt v. Abram, 352 U.S. 432, 434-37 (1957); or objects to the test, Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 761 (1966).

26 N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2302 (Consol. 1986); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 2907.27 (Baldwin 1982); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 35, § 521.8 (Purdon Supp. 1985).

27 E.g., State v. Hutchinson, 246 Ala. 48, 18 So. 2d 723 (1944); Dowling v. Harden, 18 Ala. App. 63, 88 So. 217 (1921).

28 Ex parte Woodruff, 90 Okla. Crim. 59, 210 P.2d 191 (1949); N.J. STAT. ANN. § 26:4-29 (West 1987).

29 E.g., N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2300(3) (Consol. 1986); N.D. CENT. CODE § 23-07-07(2) (Supp. 1987); WASH. REV. CODE ANN. § 70.24.020 (Supp. 1987); NEW YORK CITY HEALTH CODE § 11.51(b) (1987); see also FLA. STAT. ANN. § 384.07 (West Supp. 1986).

30 Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11 (1905). In this classic case, a municipality required vaccination of all adults pursuant to state law. The Court held that the law did not violate due process, and that the legislature had the power to determine that vaccination was a sound way to counter the threat of an epidemic.

31 O'Brien v. Cunard S.S. Co., 154 Mass. 272, 28 N.E. 266 (1891).

32 The immunizing agents were dispensed to physicians under the provisions of the New York City Sanitary Code, which was repealed and replaced by the New York City Health Code in 1959. The Sanitary Code provided for such distribution in Regulation 6 of the Regulations Governing the Distribution and Sale of Biological Products Prepared by the Department of Health, relating to section 121, as amended on April 19, 1952, and September 15, 1955. To manage the dispensation of gamma globulin, the Department established a classification of priorities, favoring special risk groups such as children, adolescents, pregnant women and young adults. The dispensing occurred in the 1940's, before the efficiency of gamma globulin as a preventive measure was disproved.

33 Some state statutes reflect this view, expressly providing exemption from medical procedures for those who object on religious principles as long as the health of the community is not endangered and quarantine measures are still enforced. See CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE §§ 3199, 3286 (West Supp. 1987); MD. HEALTH-GENERAL CODE ANN. § 18-324 (Supp. 1984); N.J. STAT. ANN. §§ 26:lA-66, 26:4-48.1 (West 1987).

34 Wright v. Dewitt School Dist., 238 Ark. 906, 385 S.W.2d 644, 646 (1985).

35 McCartney v. Austin, 57 Misc. 2d 525, 536, 293 N.Y.S.2d 188, 200 (1968) (Catholic faith is not contrary to immunization required by statute); In re Elwell, 55 Misc. 2d 252, 259, 284 N.Y.S.2d 924, 932 (1967) (Methodist Church is not opposed to the practice of immunization).

36 Brown v. City School of Dist. Corning, 104 Misc. 2d 796, 800, 429 N.Y.S.2d 355, 357 (1980) (parent arguing for exemption must prove that there is no present circumstance representing a clear and present danger of communicable disease).

37 Dalli v. Board of Educ, 358 Mass. 753, 759, 267 N.E.2d 219, 223 (1971).

38 Cude v. State, 237 Ark. 927, 377 S.W.2d 816 (1964) (note collection of cases cited therein); Allen v. Ingalls, 182 Ark. 991, 33 S.W.2d 1099 (1930); Board of Trustees v. McCurty, 169 Ky. 457, 184 S.W. 390 (1916); Barber v. School Board of Rochester, 82 N.H. 426, 135 A. 159 (1926); Board of Educ. of Mountain Lakes v. Maas, 56 N.J. Super. 245, 152 A.2d 394 (App. Div. 1959); Pierce v. Board of Educ. of Fulton, 30 Misc. 2d 1039, 219 N.Y.S.2d 519 (Sup. Ct. 1961); State ex rel. Lehman v. Partlow, 119 Wash. 316, 205 P. 420 (1922).

39 Gamble v. State, 206 Tenn. 376, 333 S.W.2d 816 (1960); see also Zuct v. King, 225 S.W. 267 (Tex Civ. App. 1920), writ of error dismissed, 260 U.S. 174 (1922) (student may be prohibited from attending school for refusing vaccination).

40 MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 111, § 181 (Michie/Law. Co-op. 1985); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3313.67.1 (Baldwin 1982); S.C CODE ANN. § 44-29-40 (Law. Co-op. 1985) (required, but may be excused).

41 ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 36-629 (Supp. 1984); MINN. STAT. ANN. § 144.12(9) (West Supp. 1985); cf. N.D. CENT. CODE § 23-07-17.1 (Supp. 1987); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3313.67.1 (Baldwin 1982); S.D. CODIFIED LAWS ANN. § 34-22-6 (Supp. 1984) (required, but may be excused).

42 E.g., ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. §36-624 (Supp. 1984); CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE §§ 3051, 3114 (West Supp. 1987); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-1-9-3 (Burns Supp. 1984); MINN. STAT. ANN. § 144.12(7) (West Supp. 1985); N.D. CENT. CODE ANN. § 23-07-06 (Supp. 1983); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.08 (Baldwin 1982); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 53, § 24661 (Purdon Supp. 1985); WASH. REV. CODE ANN. § 70.20.040 (Supp. 1987).

43 Ex parte Culver, 187 Cal. 437, 202 P. 661 (1921); CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE § 3117 (West Supp. 1985).

44 See, e.g., MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 111, § 104 (Michie/Law. Co-op. 1985); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.08 (Baldwin 1982) (authorizes, but does not require placarding).

45 State v. Rackowski, 86 Conn. 677, 86 A. 606 (1913); State ex rel. Kennedy v. Head, 182 Tenn. 249, 185 S.W.2d 530 (1945); CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE §§ 3116-17, 3354 (West Supp. 1987); Mo. REV. STAT. § 192.320 (Supp. 1985); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.99 (Baldwin 1982).

46 Ex parte Culver, 187 Cal. 437, 202 P. 661 (1921); Mo. REV. STAT. § 192.320 (Supp. 1985); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.08 (Baldwin 1982).

47 OHIO REV. CODE ANN. §3707.09 (Baldwin 1982); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 53, §24664 (Purdon Supp. 1985).

48 People ex rel. Barmore v. Robertson, 302 Ill. 422, 134 N.E. 815 (1922) (indefinite quarantine of a typhoid carrier in her own home; the case is medically outdated).

49 Ex parte King, 128 Cal. App. 27, 16 P.2d 694 (1932); State v. Rackowski, 86 Conn. 677, 86 A. 606 (1913).

50 People ex rel. Barmore v. Robertson, 302 Ill. 422, 434, 134 N.E. 815, 820 (1922).

51 Id. at 432, 134 N.E.at 819; Crayton v. Larabee, 220 N.Y. 493, 503, 116 N.E. 355, 358 (1917).

52 Id.

53 Hudson v. Rausa, 462 So. 2d 689, 693 (Miss. 1984).

54 Ex parte Johnson, 40 Cal. App. 242, 180 P. 644 (1919).

55 Application of Halko, 246 Cal. App. 2d 553, 555, 557, 54 Cal. Rptr. 661, 663, 664 (1966).

56 A 1979 opinion by the Oregon Attorney General indicated a possible extension of the law of quarantine. “A person who has received a radiation dose sufficient to make that person a radiation hazard to others could possibly be quarantined,” according to the opinion. Authority for such quarantine would be “inferred from general language such as that contained in” Oregon statutes “relating to quarantine of persons with communicable diseases.” 40 Op. Att'y Gen. Or. 180 (1979).

57 NEW YORK CITY HEALTH CODE § 11.43 (1987).

58 CAL. HEALTH & SAFETY CODE §§ 3053, 3186 (West Supp. 1987); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. Ill, § 95 (Michie/Law. Co-op. 1985); MINN. STAT. ANN. § 144.12(7) (West Supp. 1987); N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2100 (Consol. 1986); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3703.07 (Baldwin 1982); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 53, § 24668 (Purdon Supp. 1985); NEW YORK CITY HEALTH CODE § 11.55(a) (1987).

59 See, e.g., WASH. REV. CODE ANN. § 70.20.010 (Supp. 1985), repealed by Laws of 1985, ch. 213, § 32.

60 E.g., MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. Ill, § 96 (Michie/Law. Co-op. 1985); N.J. STAT. ANN. § 26:3-61 (West 1987); N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2120 (Consol. 1986).

61 E.g., MD. HEALTH-GENERAL CODE ANN. § 18-211 (Supp. 1984); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3707.30 (Baldwin 1982).

62 E.g., NEW YORK CITY HEALTH CODE §§ 11.47(a) (tuberculosis), 11.49(a)(1) (typhoid fever), 11.51(a) (venereal disease) (1987); see also Rock v. Carney, 216 Mich. 280, 185 N.W. 798 (1912).

63 E.g., OHIO REV. CODE ANN. §§ 339.50-339.64 (Baldwin 1982) (tuberculosis).

64 See Ex parte Martin, 83 Cal. App. 2d 164, 188 P.2d 287 (1948); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 35, § 521.11 (Purdon Supp. 1985).

65 E.g., MINN. STAT. ANN. § 144.12(7) (West Supp. 1985); OHIO REV. CODE ANN. § 3703.20 (Baldwin 1982).

66 Benton v. Reid, 3221 F.2d 780 (D.C. Cir. 1956); Dowling v. Harden, 18 Ala. App. 63, 88 So. 217 (1921); Wragg v. Griffin, 185 Iowa 243, 170 N.W. 400 (1919).

67 State v. Snow, 230 Ark. 746, 748, 324 S.W.2d 532, 534 (1959); Moore v. Armstrong, 149 So. 2d 36 (Fla. 1963); Moore v. Draper, 57 So. 2d 648 (Fla. 1952).

68 E.g., McGuire v. Amyx, 317 Mo. 1061, 297 S.W. 968 (1927). The extent of the health officer's discretion is demonstrated by a case upholding the detention of a newly arrived traveler from Stockholm, Sweden in a United States Public Health Hospital; the World Health Organization had declared Stockholm “infected” with smallpox, and the court found that there was a reasonable basis for the health officer's suspicion that the traveler had been exposed to the disease. United States ex rel. Siegel v. Shinnick, 219 F. Supp. 789 (E.D.N.Y. 1963).

69 N.Y. PUB. HEALTH LAW § 2124 (Consol. 1986).

70 See generally Drotman & Curran, Epidemiology and Prevention of Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in S. MAXCY & M. ROSENAU, PUBLIC HEALTH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE 458-65 (J. Last 12th ed. 1986).

71 The projection was released by the U.S. Public Health Service at a 1986 conference in Coolfount, West Virginia.

72 This account of the manner and frequency of AIDS transmission is drawn largely from Symposium, AIDS, Science and Epidemiology, Gostin & Curran, editors, 14 LAW MED. & HEALTH CARE 225 (1986)Google Scholar. See Mueller, The Epidemiology of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection, id. at 250; Drotman & Curran, supra note 70, at 459-65.

73 Table reproduced from New York Times editorial, AIDS Alarms, and False Alarms, February 4, 1987, at A26, col. 1.

AIDS CASES IN NEW YORK CITY

* Includes Haitians and Central Africans, hemophiliacs, transfusion cases and those still under investigation.

Source: New York City Health Department

74 This chart, made available by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), is not “official,” but was identified as the best current information available.

75 See chart, supra note 74, column “Sex Partner Referred.”

76 See Fox, From TB to AIDS: Value Conflicts in Reporting Disease, HASTINGS CENTER REP., December 1986 Supp., at 11, 15.

77 Such education has advocated the use of condoms and spermicides, shown to be effective in reducing the transmission of AIDS. Carriers and cases of AIDS who can be proven by reliable evidence to have engaged, or to currently engage in unsafe practices after receiving medical advice may be subject to commitment, under a policy similar to that followed for TB recalcitrants who create public health dangers by refusing to follow a prescribed medical regimen. Proof of recalcitrant behavior of AIDS carriers is difficult, and by early 1987, there had been no reported efforts to compel compliance by AIDS patients or carriers. See Gostin & Curran, The Limits of Compulsion in Controlling AIDS, HASTINGS CENTER REP., December 1986 Supp., at 24.

78 E.g., AIDS LEGAL GUIDE, Chapter 4: AIDS Confidentiality (A. Rubenfeld ed. 1987).

79 E.g., U.S. Is Considering Much Wider Tests for AIDS Infection, N.Y. Times, Feb. 4, 1987, at 1 (reporting on recommendations for premarital testing and for testing of a variety of hospital patients). For a discussion of the available public health approaches to the AIDS problem, see R. Roemer, AIDS: The Law and Public Health—Historical and Current Perspectives, Workshop Presentation on Ethical/Legal issues, Conference on AIDS in Children, Adolescents, and Heterosexual Adults: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Prevention, Atlanta, Ga., February 19, 1987. Roemer supports reporting requirements and contact tracing, which adequately preserve confidentiality, but opposes mandatory testing for AIDS, recommending instead:

routine testing, or making HIV antibody testing a routine medical procedure provided free or at very low cost, with the prerequisite of informed consent by the physicians, clinics, and hospitals, together with counseling and strict protection of the confidentiality of results. Criminal sanctions would be required for disclosure to anyone but the patient of test results and for any discrimination in employment, housing, insurance coverage, or other benefits. Under this option, patients would be free to refuse to take the test but would be urged to do so. Id.

80 Greene v. Edwards, 263 S.K.2d 661, 662 (W. Va. 1980).

81 Id. at 663.

82 People v. Sansone, 18 ILL. App. 3d 315, 323, 309 N.E.2d 733, 739 (1974).

83 Addington v. Texas, 441 U.S. 418, 432-33 (1979); In re Beverly, 342 So. 2d 481, 485 (Fla. 1977).

84 Suzuki v. Yuen, 617 E.2d 173, 178 (9th Cir. 1980).

85 In re Powell, 85 Ill. App. 3d 877, 879-80, 407 N.E.2d 658, 660 (1980).

86 F.J. v. State of Indiana, 411 N.E.2d 372, 381 (Ind. 1980) (quoting ILL. REV. STAT. ch. 91 1/2, para. 1-119 (Supp. 1978)).

87 Cross v. Harris, 418 F.2d 1095, 1100 (D.C. Cir. 1969).

88 Addington v. Texas, 441 U.S. 418, 427 (1979).

89 Suzuki v. Yuen, 617 F.2d 173, 176 (9th Cir. 1980).

90 O'Connor v. Donaldson, 422 U.S. 563, 575 (1975).

91 Id.

92 In re Powell, 85 Ill. App. 3d 877, 879-80, 407 N.E.2d 658, 660 (1980); see also Commonwealth v. Russell Stover Candies, 541 F. Supp. 143, 144-45 (D. Mass. 1982) (traditionally the parens patriae doctrine was recognized as the state's power to protect and act for persons who were unable to take care of themselves including minors and the mentally ill); Halderman v. Pennhurst State School & Hosp., 612 F.2d 84, 98-100 (3rd Cir. 1980).

93 U.S. v. Ecker, 543 F.2d 178, 188 (D.C. Cir. 1976); Dixon v. Jacobs, 427 F.2d 589, 598 (D.C. Cir. 1970) (quoting Bolton v. Harris, 395 F.2d 642, 653 (D.C. Cir. 1968)); People v. Bennett, 131 Cal. App. 3d 488, 496-97, 182 Cal. Rptr. 473, 477 (1982).

94 N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.25 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987). For similar arrangements in other states, see D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-527 (1981 & Supp. 1985); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-9.1-10 (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, §§ 7303-7304 (Purdon Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 55447-50 to -51 (Vernon Supp. 1987).

95 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5150 (West 1984); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(a)(l) (1985); MASS. ANN. LAWSCh. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.41 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-26 (Vernon Supp. 1985); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.15(l)(a) (West 1987).

96 TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-28 (Vernon Supp. 1985); cf. N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.43 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987) (application must be made by a qualified person); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(a)(2) (1985) (application must be made by a licensed physician, attorney, clergy member, health or social service professional or any state or county employee in the course of his employment).

97 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5150 (West 1984); D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-521 (1981 & Supp. 1985); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(a)(3) (1985); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW §§ 9.39, 9.45 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

98 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-521 (1981 & Supp. 1985); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-9.1-7(a)(1) (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7301(a) (Purdon Supp. 1987).

99 TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-26(b)(4) (Vernon Supp. 1985); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.15(l)(b) (West 1987).

100 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-522 (1981 & Supp. 1985); MASS. ANN. LAWSch. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.39(a) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

101 PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7302(b) (Purdon Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-26(c) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

102 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5152(a) (West Supp. 1982); cf. HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(b) (1985) (requires person to be examined by a licensed physician without unnecessary delay).

103 IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-9.1-7(a)(2) (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); TEX. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-27 (Vernon Supp. 1982).

104 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-523 (1981 & Supp. 1985); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(e) (1985); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.39(a) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

105 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5151 (West 1984); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-9.1-7 (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.15(4)-(5) (West 1987).

106 MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987) (a person may be hospitalized for up to a ten-day period).

107 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5151 (West 1984); D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-526 (1981 & Supp. 1985); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(e) (1985); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-9.1-7 (West 1984 & Supp. 1987).

108 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5157 (West 1984); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 12(a) (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7302(c) (Purdon Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-30(a)(l) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

109 HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334-59(c) & (e) (1985); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.39(b) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7302(d) (Purdon Supp. 1987).

110 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5150 (West 1984).

111 TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-26(a) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

112 N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 9.39(a) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

113 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-523 (1981 & Supp. 1985); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7303 (Purdon Supp. 1987).

114 Lynch v. Baxley, 744 F.2d 1452, 1463 (11th Cir. 1984).

115 445 U.S. 480 (1980).

116 In coming to this decision, the Court pointed to certain restrictions that might be present in a mental hospital but not in a prison, such as “greater limitations on freedom of action,” “stigmatizing consequences,” and “additional mandatory behavior modification systems.” Vitek v.Jones, 445 U.S. 480, 492-93 (1980) (quoting Miller v. Vitek, 437 F. Supp. 569, 573 (D. Neb. 1977)).

117 Wyatt v. Aderholt, 503 F.2d 1305, 1312 (5th Cir. 1974).

118 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(d)(West 1984); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.61(1)(f) (West 1987).

119 PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7104 (Purdon Supp. 1987); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.61(1)(f) (West 1987).

120 FLA. STAT. ANN. § 394.459(2)(b) (Harrison Supp. 1984); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(7) (1985); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-80(b)(1) & (4) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

121 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(b) (West 1984); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-1.6-2(a)(2) (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.03(a) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-80(b)(5) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

122 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(b) (West 1984); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(4) (1985); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.03(a) (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

123 FLA. STAT. ANN. § 394.459(2)(b) (Harrison Supp. 1984); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-1.6- 2(a)(1) (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7104 (Purdon Supp. 1987).

124 IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-1.6-2(b) (West 1984 & Supp. 1987).

125 HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-1 (1985); MASS. ANN. LAWSCh. 123, § 23 (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.03(b)4 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

126 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325 (f) & (g) (West 1984) (psychosurgery); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 23 (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.03(b)4 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987) (shock treatment).

127 HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(9) (1985); MASS. ANN. LAWS ch. 123, § 23 (Law. Co-op. 1981 & Supp. 1987); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.61(l)(g) & (h) (West 1987).

128 FLA. STAT. ANN. §§ 394, 459(14) (Harrison 1983); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(8) (1985).

129 Covington v. Harris, 419 F.2d 617, 623 (D.C. Cir. 1969).

130 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(a) (West 1984); FLA. STAT. ANN. §§ 394.459(2)(b), 394.463(2)(a)1, 394.467 (1)(b)2 (Harrison Supp. 1984); PA. STAT. ANN. tit. 50, § 7107 (Purdon Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-80(b)(1) (Vernon Supp. 1987); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.61(1)(e) (West 1987).

131 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-563 (1981 & Supp. 1985); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(24) (1985) (restraint must be “part of treatment plan” and “necessary to preserve the rights of other patients or staff”); N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.04 (McKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-86 (Vernon Supp. 1987) (restraint must also be proscribed by physician).

132 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(c) (West 1984); HAWAII REV. STAT. § 334E-2(a)(24) (1985); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-1.6-6 (West 1984 & Supp. 1987).

133 D.C. CODE ANN. § 21-563 (1981 & Supp. 1985); IND. CODE ANN. § 16-14-1.6-4 (West 1984 & Supp. 1987); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-86 (Vernon Supp. 1987).

134 N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.04(b) (MtKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

135 CAL. WELF. & INST. CODE § 5325.1(c) (West 1984).

136 Youngberg v. Romeo, 457 U.S. 307 (1982).

137 Id. at 324.

138 TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-80(b)(1) (Vernon Supp. 1987).

139 N.Y. MENTAL HYG. LAW § 33.04(b) (MtKinney 1978 & Supp. 1987).

140 CAL. WELF & INST. CODE § 5325.1(c) (West 1984); TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 5547-80(b)(2) (Vernon Supp. 1987); Wis. STAT. ANN. § 51.61(1)(h) (West 1987).