¹ The literature of Hinduism in English is growing. One of the most convenient collections is that found in Ballon, Robert O. (ed.), The Bible of the World (New York: Viking, 1939).Google Scholar See also Carus, Paul, The Gospel of Buddha (Chicago: Open Court, 1905).Google Scholar Of the Hindu scriptures themselves, the Upanishads as a whole, and especially the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, are valuable. The Garunda Purana, Chaps, cxiii and cxv, casts a flood of light on these questions. Sankaracharya's Atma Bodha and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are also helpful.

² Studies in My Experiments with Truth (2 vols., Allahabad, 1927).

³ Andrews, C. F., Mahatma Gandhi at Work (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1931), p. 310Google Scholar—a selection from Gandhi's Hind Swaraj.

⁴ Mahatma Gandhi at Work, p. 123.

⁵ Andrews, C. F., Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1930), p. 138.Google Scholar

⁶ Ibid., pp. 193–194.

⁷ Wells, H. G., A Modern Utopia (New York: Scribner, 1905).Google Scholar

⁸ Mahatma Gandhi at Work, p. 249.

⁹ Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas, p. 198. Cf. Anselm Bellegarrigue, the nineteenth-century French radical, who, arguing in like manner, remarked: “In the end, there are no tyrants, only slaves.” Quoted in Ligt, Barthélemy de, The Conquest of Violence (New York: Dutton, 1938), p. 109.Google Scholar

¹⁰ For a detailed account of the practical implications of Gandhi's political theory, see Shridharani, Krishnalal, War without Violence (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1939).Google ScholarRolland, Romain, Mahatma Gandhi: The Man Who Became One with the Universal Being (London: Swarthmore, 1924)Google Scholar; Andrews, C. F. (ed.), Speeches and Writings of M. K. Gandhi (Madras: Natesan, 1918)Google Scholar; Bolton, Glorney, The Tragedy of Gandhi (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1932)Google Scholar; and Mazumdar, Haridas T., Gandhi versus the Empire (New York: Universal, 1932)Google Scholar, and The United Nations of the World (New York: Universal, 1942), might also be consulted.

¹¹ Mahatma Gandhi at Work p 253

¹² And by several of those most intimately associated with him. See, for example, Nehru, Jawaharlal, Toward Freedom (New York: John Day, 1941), pp. 313–323.Google Scholar Prominent critics of the pacifist argument have also commented in the same vein. See Lewis, John, The Case Against Pacifism (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1941), pp. 99–101.Google Scholar

¹³ Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas, pp. 341–342.

¹⁴ Ibid., p. 115.

¹⁵ This is not an historical essay, but it might be well to point out that certain of the political doctrines of Christian pacifism are as old as Christianity itself. They were prominent, if not dominant, in the political thinking of the first century and a half of the Christian Church. Consult Troeltsch, Ernst, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches (New York: Macmillan, 1931)Google Scholar; Cadoux, C. J., The Early Church and the World (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1925)Google Scholar; the works of Harnack, Adolf, especially his Militia Christi, die christliche Religion und der Soldatenstand in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten (Tübingen: 1905)Google Scholar; and Lee, Umphrey, The Historie Church and Modern Pacifism (Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury, 1943).Google Scholar On the political theories of the pacifist Anabaptists in early modern times, see Bax, E. Belfort, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists (London: Macmillan, 1905).Google Scholar The implications of Quaker social and political ideas are treated in Trueblood, Benjamin F., The Development of the Peace Idea (Boston, 1932).Google Scholar

The best treatment of the modern history of Christian pacifist ideas will be found in Allen, Devere, The Fight for Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1930).Google Scholar On the origins of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, perhaps the outstanding religious pacifist movement, aside from bodies like the Friends, Brethren, and Mennonites, see Roberts, Richard, “How the Fellowship Began,” Fellowship (Journal of the Fellowship of Reconciliation), IX, No. 1, Jan., 1943, pp. 3–5.Google Scholar

Catholic pacifism, based upon the application of historic Catholic teaching to problems of modern politics, is best reflected in such organizations as the English Pax society, and in the Catholic Worker movement in the United States, which publishes The Catholic Worker.

¹⁶ Muste, A. J., Non-Violence in an Aggressive World (New York: Harper, 1940).Google Scholar

¹⁷ MacGregor, G. H. C., The New Testament Basis of Pacifism (New York: The Fellowship of Reconciliation, 1940), p. 55.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Umphrey Lee quite rightly points out that modern Christian pacifism is in no small degree the fruit of a theology which tends to emphasize social and political questions, as contrasted with problems of individual salvation. Such a view would admit the historical rôle of Friends, Mennonites, Brethren, and other pacifist bodies, but would contend that the political emphasis of modern pacifism is more largely due to the social and political interpretation given to New Testament teaching by proponents of the Social Gospel like Walter Rauschenbusch. Lee, The Historic Church and Modem Pacifism, Chaps, viii and ix.

¹⁹ Huxley, Aldous, Grey Eminence (New York: Harper, 1941).Google Scholar

²⁰ “Church and State,” Essays, Letters, Miscellanies, in Works (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929), Pt. I, p. 150.

²¹ My Religion (New York: Crowell, 1885), p. 196.

²² For an instructive analysis of the relationship between Tolstoy and Gandhi, see Markovitch, Milam I., Tolstoi et Gandhi (Paris: H. Champion, 1928).Google Scholar Throughout most of Tolstoy's later works, his philosophy of politics is more or less explicit. But see especially his Christianity and Patriotism (Chicago: Open Court, 1905) and his novel Resurrection.

²³ Grey Eminence.

²⁴ G. H. C. MacGregor, The New Testament Basis of Pacifism.

²⁵ Cadoux, C. J., Christian Pacifism Re-examined (London: Blackwell, 1940)Google Scholar, especially Chap. ii.

²⁶ Ibid., p. 15.

²⁷ Ibid., p. 45.

²⁸ See Gregg, Richard, The Power of Non-Violence (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1935)Google Scholar; A. J. Muste, Non-Violence in an Aggressive World; and Holmes, John Haynes, Out of Darkness (New York: Harper, 1942).Google Scholar See also the various works of Kirby Page, e.g., Eddy, Sherwood and Page, Kirby, The Abolition of War (New York: Doran, 1924).Google Scholar

²⁹ Ends and Means: An Enquiry Into the Nature of Ideals and into the Methods Employed f or their Realization (New York: Harper, 1937).

³⁰ The Third Morality (New York: Morrow, 1937), pp. 148–149.

³¹ Certainly this was the logic implicit in the political and social theories of monasticism and in the doctrines of such medieval Christian sects as the Cathari (Albigensi). Nor is this idea absent from groups like the Mennonites.

³² Grey Eminence, p. 303.

³³ Note particularly Heard, Gerald, The Third Morality and Pain, Sex, and Time (New York: Harper, 1939)Google Scholar; Huxley, Aldous, Ends and Means, Eyeless in Gaza (New York: Harper, 1936)Google Scholar, and Grey Eminence; and the publications of the Fellowship of Reconciliation. The Fellowship publishes Fellowship in the United States and The Christian Pacifist in Great Britain. Contentions of like character will be found in Peace News, the periodical publication of the Peace Pledge Union in Great Britain and in the American Catholic Worker, published in New York.

³⁴ The Third Morality, p. 277.

³⁵ Gregg, Richard, A Discipline for Non-Violence (Pendle Hill Pamphlet No. 11, Wallingford, Pa.: 1942).Google Scholar

³⁶ This statement, of course, would not embrace the more quietistic elements in the pacifist tradition—some segments of the “historic peace churches,” for example.

³⁷ MacGregor, , The New Testament Basis of Pacifism, p. 118.Google Scholar

³⁸ The Power of Non-Violence, Chap. ii. “The art of jiu-jitsu is based on a knowledge of balance and how to disturb it. In a struggle of moral jiu-jitsu the moral balance seems to depend upon the qualities of one's relationship to moral truth. Hence part of the superior power of the non-violent resister seems to lie in the nature of his character” (p. 51).

³⁹ This argument is, of course, a restatement, within the pacifist assumptions, of Niebuhr's, Reinhold thesis in Moral Man and Immoral Society (New York: Scribner, 1932).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Sheehan, Arthur, in The Catholic Worker, Jan., 1943, p. 8.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Grey Eminence, p. 312.

⁴² This essay does not purport to examine the political theories of pacifism critically. But it might be remarked that there is an amazing absence of scholarly criticism. See, however, Niebuhr, Reinhold, Reflections on the End of an Era (New York: Scribner, 1934)Google Scholar, Christianity and Power Politics (New York: Scribner, 1940), and The Nature and Destiny of Man, 2 vols. (New York: Scribner, 1941 and 1943); Lewis, John, The Case Against Pacifism (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1940)Google Scholar; Shelvankar, K. S., Ends Are Means; A Critique of Social Values (London: Lindsay Drummond, 1938)Google Scholar; and Lerner, Max, Ideas for the Ice Age (New York: Viking, 1941)Google Scholar