¹ The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers, and also John Savage and the History Department of Lehigh University, Lauren Benton and the New York University Atlantic History Workshop, Bernard Bailyn and Harvard’s International Seminar on Atlantic History, and Monica Henry, Marie-Jeanne Rossignol and Lucia Bergamasco of ReDEHJA and Université Paris 7-Denis Diderot, for welcoming and questioning a work-in-progress.

Archives Diplomatiques Françaises, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères (Paris) (MAE), Correspondance Consulaire, Guatemala (CC-G), Vol. 2 (1844–1845), ff. 240-240v. Bertrand Save to Governor of Sonsonate Department, 26 December, 1843. All translations are mine.

² MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 240v-241 v. Governor of Sonsonate, Santa Ana, 8 January 1844, to Alcalde Constitucional Primero, Sonsonate.

³ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff.263-4. José A. Jiménez, Ministerio General del Estado de Salvador, to Consul General Jean-Marie Baradère of France, San Salvador, 29 November, 1844.

⁴ Lomnitz, Claudio, “Modes of Citizenship in Mexico,” Public Culture 11:1 (1999), p. 276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ Raskin, Jamin B., “Legal Aliens, Local Citizens: The Historical, Constitutional And Theoretical Meanings Of Alien Suffrage,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 141 (April 1993), pp. 1403–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar One Pennsylvania judge held, “aliens of a certain description, who from length of residence, and payment of taxes, might be supposed to have a common interest with the other inhabitants, were indulged with the right of voting.”

⁶ For the classical sources, see Riesenberg, Peter, Citizenship in the Western Tradition: Plato to Rousseau (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992).Google Scholar For an argument against birthright citizenship as a U.S. Framer’s ideal, see Erler, Edward J., “From Subjects to Citizens: The Social Compact Origins of American Citizenship,” in Pestritto, Ronald J. and West, Thomas G., eds., The American Founding and the Social Compact (New York: Lexington Books, 2003), pp. 163–198.Google Scholar

⁷ Kettner, James H., The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1978), pp. 300–333.Google Scholar

⁸ Those who raise this question include Guerra, François-Xavier , “El soberano y su reino. Reflexiones sobre la génesis del ciudadano en América Latina,” pp. 33–61;Google Scholar Chiaramonte, Juan Carlos, “Ciudadanía, soberanía y representación en la génesis de Estado argentino, 1810–1852,” pp. 94–117,Google Scholar and Carmagnani, Marcello and Hernández, Alicia, “Dimensiones de la ciudadanía orgánica mexicana, 1850–1910,” pp. 371–402 Google Scholar in Sabato, Hilda, ed., Ciudadanía política y formación de las naciones: Perspectivas históricas de América Latina (México: Colegio de México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1999),Google Scholar and Irurozqui, Marta, “La vecindad y sus promesas de vecino a ciudadano, Bolivia, 1810–1830,” Anuario Boliviano (2000), pp. 203–227.Google Scholar

⁹ Even this literature is slim and recent. See Sabato, Hilda, ed., Ciudadanía política y formación de las naciones; Antonio Annino, ed., Historia de las elecciones en Iberoamérica, siglo XIX. De la formación del espacio político nacional (Buenos Aires: FCE, 1995);Google Scholar Carbó, Eduardo Posada, éd., Elections Before Democracy: The History of Elections in Europe and Latin America (London: Macmillan, 1996);CrossRefGoogle Scholar Malamud, Carlos, ed., Partidos Políticos y elecciones en América Latina y la Península Ibérica, 1830–1930 (Madrid: Papeles de Trabajo del Instituto Universitario Ortega y Gasset, 1995).Google Scholar

¹⁰ For diplomacy, commerce and foreigners in Central America, see Rodríguez, Mario, A Palmerstonian Diplomat in Central America: Frederick Chatfield, Esq. (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1964)Google Scholar and Schoonover, Thomas, The French in Central America: Commerce and Culture, 1820–1930 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Press, 2000).Google Scholar For Mexico, see Spence Robertson, William, “French Intervention in Mexico, 1838,” HAHR 24:2 (May 1944), pp. 222–252;Google Scholar Barker, Nancy, “The French colony in Mexico, 1821–1861: generator of intervention,” French Historical Studies 9:4 (1976), pp. 596–618,CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Hermann, Christian, La politique de la France en Amérique latine, 1826–1850: une rencontre manquée (Bordeaux: Maison des pays ibériques, 1996).Google Scholar

¹¹ Kettner, The Development. See also Smith, James Morton, Freedom’s Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1956).Google Scholar

¹² Sahlins, Peter, “Nationalité avant la lettre: les pratiques de la naturalisation sous l’Ancien Régime,” Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 55:5 (2000), pp. 1081–1108,CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Unnaturally French: Foreign Citizens in the Old Regime and After (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003). See also Fahrmeir, Andreas, “Defining the Citizen,” in Dwyer, Philip and Forrest, Alan, eds., Napoleon and His Empire: Europe, 1804–1814 (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007),Google Scholar PAGES NEEDED.

¹³ Herzog, Tamar, Defining Nations: Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁴ Vogel, Hans, “New citizens for a new nation: naturalization in early independent Argentina,” HAHR 71:1(1991), pp. 107–131;Google Scholar Benton, Lauren, ‘“The Laws of this Country’: Foreigners and the Legal Construction of Sovereignty in Uruguay, 1830–1875,” Law and History Review 19:3 (2001), pp. 479–511;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Pani, Erika, “De coyotes y gallinas: Hispanidad, identidad nacional y comunidad política durante la expulsión de españoles,” Revista de Indias 228 (October 2003), pp. 255–274.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Aristotle, Politics, Book 3, distinguishes between the rights of resident aliens and foreigners in a state.

¹⁶ Emmerich de Vattel, Le droit des gens: Ou Principes de la loi naturelle, appliqués à la conduite & aux affaires des nations & des souverains. The 1758 editions appeared almost simultaneously in Leiden, London and the Hague. Citations in this paper come from de Vattel, Emmerich, The Law of Nations or the Principal of Natural Law Applied to the Conduct and to the Affairs of Nations and of Sovereigns, Chitty, Joseph, trans. (Philadelphia: T & J.W. Johnson & Co, 1883).Google Scholar

¹⁷ For influence in the British Atlantic, see Gould, Eliga J., “Zones of Law, Zones of Violence: The Legal Geography of the British Atlantic, circa 1772,” William and Mary Quarterly 3d Ser., 60 (2002), pp. 471–510;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Michael, Helen K., “The Role of Natural Law In Early American Constitutionalism: Did The Founders Contemplate Judicial Enforcement Of “Unwritten” Individual Rights?” North Carolina Law Review 69 (January 1991), p. 427;Google Scholar Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. 27, 210;Google Scholar and Mullet, Charles F., Fundamental Law And The American Revolution 1760–1776 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1933), pp. 30–32.Google Scholar

¹⁸ A pamphlet by national assembly deputy José María Castilla in 1823 cites Vattel, Locke and Penn, suggesting that these three authors' works were known to the highly educated elite participating in state and federal congresses. Castilla believes the federal system too advanced for Central America, and laments the lack of a professorship of either natural or international law at the university. Tulane University Latin American Library, Central American Pamphlets and Ephemera Collection (LAL, CAPE), Box 1, Voto Particular del Cddno josé Maria Castilla… con acusación de discutirse las bases pa la constitucion de dichas provas, 18 November 1823.

¹⁹ My italics.

²⁰ Vattel, Law of Nations, Preliminaries, §1, For Vattel, “Nations or states are bodies politic, societies of men united together for the purpose of promoting their mutual safely and advantage by the joint efforts of their combined strength.” In other words, he uses ‘nation’ and ‘state’ synonymously.

²¹ Anghie, Antony, “Finding the Peripheries: Sovereignty and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century International Law,” Harvard International Law Journal 40 (Winter 1999), p. 1.Google Scholar

²² For Chiapas’ decision to join Mexico, see Castillo, Manuel Angel, Ribot, Mónica Toussaint, and Olivera, Mario Vázquez, Espacios diversos, historia en comun: Mexico, Guatemala y Belice: La construcción de una frontera (Mexico: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, Dirección General de Acervo Histórico Diplomático, 2006).Google Scholar For Central American independence, see Rodríguez, Mario, The Cádiz Experiment in Central America, 1808–1826 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978);Google Scholar Soria, Julio Pinto, Centroamérica, de la colonia al estado nacional, 1800–1840 (Guatemala: Editorial Universitaria, 1986);Google Scholar Chaverri, Carlos Meléndez, La Independencia de Centro américa (Madrid: MAPFRE, 1993);Google Scholar and Dym, Jordana, From Sovereign Villages to National States: Cities, States and Federation in Central America, 1759–1839 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).Google Scholar

²³ Bailyn, , Ideological Origins, pp. 176–189.Google Scholar

²⁴ See “Informe Sobre la Constitución leido en la ANC el 23 de mayo de 1824,” in Carmelo Sáenz de Santa María, “El proceso ideológico-institucional desde la Capitanía General de Guatemala hasta las provincias unidas del Centro de América: de provincias a estados” Revista de Indias 38 (1978), pp. 219–285.

²⁵ For discussion of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth changing ideas of nation, see Habermas, Jurgen H, “The European Nation-State: The Past and Future of Sovereignty and Citizenship,” Public Culture 10:2 (1998), pp. 399–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁶ Constitución Federal de la República de Centroamérica (1824), Article 3; Woodward, Ralph Lee Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 26–27.Google Scholar

²⁷ Constitución Federal (1824), Art. 13; Marure, Alejandro, Efemérides de los hechos acaecidos en la república de Centro-America desde el año de 1821 hasta el de 1842 (Guatemala: Editorial del Ministerio de Educación Pública, 1956 (1844)).Google Scholar The ANC abolished slavery on 17 April 1824

²⁸ Constitución de Guatemala (1825), Article 46; Constitución de Costa Rica (1825), Article 18; Constitución de Nicaragua (1826), Article 17. Guatemala defined “citizens” as being comprised of inhabitants; Nicaragua made inhabitants with vecindad “Nicaraguans.”

²⁹ Vattel, Law of Nations, Book 1, Ch 19, §212, “… in order to be of the country, it is necessary that a person be born of a father who is a citizen; for, if he is born there of a foreigner, it will be only the place of his birth, and not his country.”

³⁰ For France, see Constitution Française, 1791, Article 2 and Code Civil (1804), Articles 9 and 10. For Spain, Constitución Política de la Monarquía Española (1812), Article 5.

³¹ Constitución Federal ( 1824), Article 14.

³² Constitución Federal (1824), Article 15.

³³ Code Civil (1804), Articles 7, 17.

³⁴ Constitución Política (1812), Article 24.

³⁵ See Dym, Jordana, “Our Pueblos, Fractions with no Central Unity,” Municipal Sovereignty in Central America, 1808–1821,” HAHR 86:3 (August 2006), pp. 431–466.Google Scholar

³⁶ Constitución Federal (1824), Art. 4.

³⁷ Spain, Constitución política (1812), Art. 5, 19, 20; France, Constitution (1791), Articles 3–4; Constitution (1795), Article 10; Code Civil (1804), Arts. 9, 11–14.

³⁸ Constitución Federal (1824), Art. 18.

³⁹ Constitución Federal (1824), Art. 17.

⁴⁰ Constitución Federal (1824), Art, 15. In many respects, these requirements follow Spain's Constitución Política (1812), Art. 20.

⁴¹ Tulane LAL, CAPE, Box 1, Provincias Unidas del Centro de América, Decreto, 25 May 1824, Guidelines for Naturalization of Foreigners. The decree cites a more extensive 23 April 1824 act I have not found.

⁴² New York Public Library, Rare Books Collection (NYPL-RBC), *KRK+ Central, República de Centroamérica, Decretos, 16 and 27 June 1825.

⁴³ Archivo Histórico Arcediocesano Francisco García de Paula (Guatemala), Tl–105: Cartas, Decree 64: Reglamento Provisional para levantar y reclutar la fuerza publica del Estado 29 October 1825, Art 20.

⁴⁴ NYPL-RBC, *KRK+ Central Federation, Decreto, 16 August 1825.

⁴⁵ Spanish-born municipal councilors included Damaso Angulo, Pedro José Arrechea, José María Cambronera, José Coloma, Candido Corzo, Andes Espada, Miguel González Saravia, Juan Matheu, Diego Payes, José Petit, José Basilio Porras, Miguel and Regial Ruiz Santiestaban, Eusebio Tejada, José María Urruela y Urruela and Julian Villega. See Archivo General de Centro America (AGCA) Guatemala City Libros de Actas, 1821–1838, for their years of service, and Jordana Dym, “Database of Guatemala City Councilors, 1775–1850” (unpublished) for documents proving nationality.

⁴⁶ Archivo Municipal de Sonsonate (AMS), Libros de Actas. Save was syndic in 1835 and alcalde in 1836, 1842 and 1844. Varchand was alderman in 1835–1836 and alcalde in 1841.

⁴⁷ Archivo Municipal de Tegucigalpa, Libro de Actas, Ciudad de Tegucigalpa, 1843–1847, 25 April 1843.

⁴⁸ [Morse, Samuel F.B.], Imminent dangers to the free institutions of the United States through foreign immigration, and the present state of the naturalization laws. (New York: E.B. Clayton, 1835).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Griffith, William, Empire in the Wilderness: Foreign Colonization and Development in Guatemala, 1834–1844 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1965).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Dunn, Henry, Guatimala, or the Republic of Central America, in 1827–8 (London: J. Nisbet, 1829), pp. 1–2;Google Scholar Naylor, Robert A., “The British Role in Central America Prior to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850,” HAHR 40:3 (August 1960), p. 367,Google ScholarN. 13. Britons worked as merchants, engineers, miners, hoteliers, coffee planters and tradessuch as carpentry, boatbuilding, teaching, medicine, and surveying.

⁵¹ For Raoul see Szaszdi, Adam, Nicolás Raoul y la república federal de Centroamérica (Madrid: Universidad de Madrid, 1958)Google Scholar and Belaubre, Christophe, “Les officiers de la Grande Armée le pouvoir de l’Eglise en Amérique centrale (1824–1826),” in Belaubre, Christophe, Dym, Jordana and Savage, John, eds., Napoléon et l’Atlantique (Toulouse: Méridiennes, forthcoming).Google Scholar

⁵² MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 480, 500–505. Perrin to MAE, Granada, 1 October 1845; Baradère to Foreign Minister (FM), Guatemala, 29 November 1845.

⁵³ See note 50 and Thompson, George A., Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala (London: John Murray, 1829), p. 83.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Spain signed its first treaties with Central American governments in 1850, and fully acknowledged independence in 1863. Woodward, , Central America, p. 132.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Rodríguez, , A Palmerstonian Diplomat, p. 302.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Naylor, , “The British Role,” p. 366.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ MAE, CC-G, 1 (1823–1843), ff. 176v-177v. Cochelet to FM, Mexico, 20 January 1832.

⁵⁸ AMS, Libros de Actas, Sonsonate. Campo had been alderman (1811–1812) and alcalde (1814, 1820). Two sons followed him as city councilors and state congressmen. One, Rafael Campo y Pomar, became President of El Salvador.

⁵⁹ AMS Caja 2, Juzgado 1821–1829, Sobre insultos q reclama el Sr Consul de Chile a D Pedro N Riesco, a los hijos del Sr D Pedro Campo.

⁶⁰ Tulane LAL CAPE, Box 1, J.Y. Pontaza al Secretario del Gobierno del Estado de Guatemala, José Francisco de Córdova, 9 August 1828.

⁶¹ For Mexico, see Sims, The Expulsion, esp. Chapter 9. In Mexico, many states issued separate expulsion decrees.

⁶² AGCA B 2434-51319. Jose Santos Arriola to Sec Gral del Gbno del Estado, Totonicapán, July 8, 1829; 2434–51348, Rodriguez to Government, July 13, 1829. On the same footing as Spaniards, Central Americans including Tadeo Piñol and José Perfecto Azmitia, sought and received “pardons,” claiming they had served the illegitimate government under duress; others who opposed the new authorities,including Juan José Aycinena, asked for and received passports to leave. 2434–51486 (Tadeo Pinol, 1829) and 51496 (José Perfecto Azmitia, 1829); Passports (August 1830): 51481 (Fdo Naxera and Mnl Rubio, Belize); 51483 (José Antonio Palomo); 51484 ( Miguel Asturias); 51499 (Antonio Aycinena), 51505 (Francisco Angulo).

⁶³ Biblioteca Brañas (Guatemala), Guatemala, Colección de los decretos y de las órdenes interesantes… (Guatemala, 1830), pp. 18–19, Decreto, 23 November, 1829, Art. 2.

⁶⁴ NYPL-RBC, *KRK+ Central Federal naturalization decrees for Juan Matheu (29 September 1829), Pbro. Ignacio Barnoya (18 November 1829); AGCA B 4126–92809, f. 24. Manuel Jonama (16 October 1829).

⁶⁵ Ibid.

⁶⁶ AGCA B 2434–51412, 23 July 1830.

⁶⁷ NYPL-RBC, *KRK+ Central, 9 June 1830, Decreto. Preventing Spaniards from holding office followed Mexico's 10 May 1827 law; Sims, The Expulsion, p. 19.

⁶⁸ Nicaragua, , Recopilación de las leyes, decretos y acuerdos (Managua: Imprenta del Gobierno, 1867), pp. 37–38.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ AGCA B 2434–51346, 14 July 1830.

⁷⁰ Guatemala Colección de leyes, Decreto 81, 10 November 1830.

⁷¹ Rica, Costa, Colección de órdenes y decretos… 1827–1830 (San José: Imprenta Nacional, 1856),Google Scholar Decree 224, December 1830, Naturalization of Santiago Mollet; NYPL-RBC, *KRK+ Central, Central American Congress, Decree, 16 July 1830, Derbyshir naturalization.

⁷² MAE, CC-G l,ff. 109-13. Cochelet to FM, 20 December 1830. Despite his appointment, Cochelet never traveled to Central America from his Mexican post.

⁷³ MAE, CC-G, 1, f. 60, Letter of merchants J. Ledere and Joseph Durand, October 7, 1836.

⁷⁴ Rodríguez, , A Palmerstonlan Diplomat, pp. 140–141.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Rodríguez, , A Palmerstonian Diplomat, pp. 164.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Queen’s Advocate John Backhouse to James Stephen, 12 July 1840, discussed in Naylor, “The British Role,” p. 372.

⁷⁷ Vattel, Law of Nations, Book 1, Chapter 7, §84 Jurisdiction, “excepting in cases where justice is refused, or unless palpable and evident injustice done, or rules and forms openly violated, or, finally, an odious distinction made, to the prejudice of his subjects, or of foreigners in general.”

⁷⁸ See Robertson, , The French in Mexico, pp. 228–232.Google Scholar French demands included removal of specific Mexican government officials identified as abusing foreigners.

⁷⁹ The consular correspondence is filled with discussion of French citizen claims, consular investigations and interventions. Perhaps one reason consuls were reasonably well received by state governments was their frequent investigation of claims before raising them with the Central Americans and pursuit only of those found valid. See, for example, MAE, CC-G, 1, ff. 436–441, Albert Huet to FM, 25 January 1843; CC-San Salvador (1833–1843), ff. 134, 212, 242, Auguste Mahelin to FM, San Salvador, 1 March 1838 and 1 April 1839; Guatemala, 5 November 1839; CC-G, 2, f. 11, Baradère to FM, Guatemala, 20 February 1844.

⁸⁰ Schoonover, , The French in Central America, p. 14.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Naylor, , “The British Role,” p. 373, n. 25.Google Scholar

⁸² MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 20v-21v. Francisco Castellon to Frederick Chatfield, 7 December 1843. My italics.

⁸³ Federation, Decreto, 30 May 1838. See Lee Woodward, Ralph Jr., Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993)Google Scholar and Gudmundson, Lowell and Fuentes, Hector Lindo, Central America, 1821–1871: Liberalism before Liberal Reform (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Constitutions: Nicaragua (1838), Art. pp. 17–19; Honduras (1839), Art. 9; El Salvador (1841), Art. 5; Guatemala (Decreto 76, 1839), Art. 2, in Otero, Luis Mariñas, Las Constituciones de Guatemala (Madrid, Ediciones Cultura Hispánica 1962), 375–382.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Constitutions: Guatemala (Decreto 76, 1839); Honduras (1839), Art. 6; El Salvador (1841), Art. 4–6; Costa Rica (1844), Articles 56–59. Nicaragua’s 1838 Constitution was the exception, still referring to “inhabitants”(Art. 4).

⁸⁶ Constitution of Nicaragua (1838), Art. 20.

⁸⁷ Constitutions: Honduras (1848), Art 10; El Salvador (1841), Art. 6.

⁸⁸ Constitutions: Nicaragua (1838), Art. 48; Guatemala (Decreto 76, 1839); El Salvador (1841), Art. 7; Costa Rica (1841), Art. 2.1; Costa Rica (1847), Art. 35; Honduras (1848), Art. 12. Quote taken from El Salvador.

⁸⁹ Guatemala (Decreto 76, 1839), Art. 4.

⁹⁰ Pacto de Chinandega (1842), Art. 13.

⁹¹ Constitution of Nicaragua (1838), Art. 15. My italics.

⁹² MAE, CC-G, 2: ff. 275v-276v, Baradère to FM, Guatemala, 23 December 1844.

⁹³ Constitution of El Salvador (1841), Art. 6.

⁹⁴ Cogordan, George, Droit des gens: la nationalité au point de vue des rapports internationaux 2nd ed. (Paris: L. Larose et Forcel, 1890), p. 17.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Fahrmeir, “Defining the Citizen,” p. X? -[Note: I have a conference paper for this, and am getting the book page #.]

⁹⁶ MAE, CC-G, 2, f. 389, Huet to FM, Guatemala, 3 July 1844.

⁹⁷ See Notes 1 and 2.

⁹⁸ El Salvador, Decreto 5 (Naturalization), 7 March 1844, in MAE CC-G, 2, ff. 65–66.

⁹⁹ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 68–9, François Baradère to FM, 30 March 1844.

¹⁰⁰ MAE, CC-G, 2, f. 274, Baradere to FM, 23 December 1844. See ff. 275-276 for the letter by Frenchmen, Andres Benard, François Satre and Nicolas Goussin.

¹⁰¹ This reference apparently applies to Central America’s 1824 or 1835 federal constitution, which both offer letters of naturalization to foreigners with 5 years' residence (Article 15.3). I have not seen Nicaraguan legislation that adopts El Salvador's tactic of naturalization without consent, although it might exist.

¹⁰² MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 275v-276v, Baradère, 23 December, 1844.

¹⁰³ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 264-5, Baradère to El Salvador Minister Jiménez, 13 December 1844.

¹⁰⁴ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 473-v, Perrin to FM, Granada, 25 September 1845.

¹⁰⁵ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 477-v. The law was repealed 7 June 1845 due to “the Consuls’ reclamations.”

¹⁰⁶ Barker, , “The French Colony,” p. 608.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ MAE, CC-G, 2, ff. 477-478V. To give the measures additional weight, the decree also punished state officials and priests who facilitated law-breaking.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid. While not retroactive, the law required existing residents to observe its provisions in future.

¹⁰⁹ MAE CC-G, 2, f. 471v, Perrin to FM, Granada, 25 September 1845.

¹¹⁰ France, Code Civil (1804). Article 17, Section 2, held that French nationality was lost by “non-authorized acceptance of public functions conferred by a foreign government. Article 21 revoked status of a Frenchman who undertook foreign military service without government authorization.

¹¹¹ MAE, CC-G 1, ff. 369-V, Victor Cornay to Huet, May 1842.

¹¹² MAE, CC-G 1, ff. 367-368, Huet to FM, Guatemala, 13 May 1842; Huet to Cornay, Guatemala, 11 May 1842.

¹¹³ MAE, CC-G 1, ff. 491–492, Foreign Ministry to Huet, 26 June 1843.

¹¹⁴ France, Code Civil (1804), Article 18.

¹¹⁵ Cogordan, , Droit des gens, pp. 11, 14, 18.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Vattel, Law of Nations, Book 1, §224-233. In dealing with emigrants and exiles, Vattel posits the rights of those expelled to live somewhere, but while encouraging other states to take them in, does not explicitly require this.

¹¹⁷ Kettner, , The Development, pp. 269–271.Google Scholar The U.S. developed a policy to protect of its citizens abroad, excepting naturalized citizens when in their native land when the native government sought to enforce its laws.

¹¹⁸ Martinez, Maria Consuelo Cal, “Un aspecto de las relaciones hispano-venezolanas en su innicio: la naturaleza de los hijos de españoles,” Boletín de la Academia Nacional de la Historia (Venezuela) 84:336 (2001), pp. 226–262.Google Scholar For contemporary challenges of dual nationality, see Escobar, Cristina, “Extraterritorial political rights and dual citizenship in Latin America,” Latin American Research Review 42:3 (2007), pp. 43–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹²² Cogordan, , Droit des gens, pp. 16–17.Google Scholar