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The So-Called Solonian Property Classes: Citizenship in Archaic Athens *

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2017

Alain Duplouy
Alain Duplouy*
Affiliation:
Université Paris 1Panthéon-Sorbonne
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Abstracts

It is commonly accepted that the definition of four property classes by Solon in early sixth century-BCE Athens marked a major step in the political construction of the Athenian state. However, as Claude Mossé argued thirty-five years ago, this reconstruction is mainly the result of a fourth-century-BCE historiography that positioned Solon as the founding father of Athenian democracy—casting doubt on the early existence of the so-called Solonian system. Although such an approach has often been considered as “postmodern” or “pessimistic,” I propose to follow Mossé’s path by considering the Solonian telē as occupational groups involved, along with many others, in the construction of the Athenian polis. This analysis results in the definition of an explicitly Archaic citizenship, conceived as a performance linked to specific behaviors and lifestyles.

Type
Constructing the Community
Information
Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales - English Edition , Volume 69 , Issue 3 , September 2014 , pp. 409 - 439
Copyright
Copyright © Les Ȥitions de l’EHESS 2014

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Footnotes

*

This study, which I would like to dedicate to Claude Mossé, has benefited from the comments of Paulin Ismard and the two anonymous readers consulted by the Annales. I am very grateful for their remarks. Unless otherwise indicated, translations of Greek texts are taken from the Loeb Classical Library, published by Harvard University Press.

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22. Pseudo-Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 7.2-4 [translation modified].

23. Aristotle, Politics 2.1274a18-21 [translation modified].

24. Plutarch, Life of Solon 18.1-2.

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27. Plutarch, Life of Theseus 25.2.

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29. Finley, The Ancient Economy, 48.

30. The word telos is never used with this meaning in other contexts, except to designate the Roman equestrian order. See Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.45.7.

31. Blok, Josine H. and Lardinois, André P. M. H., eds., Solon of Athens: New Historical and Philological Approaches (Leiden: Brill, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32. Mossé, Claude, “Comment s’élabore un mythe politique: Solon, ‘père fondateur’ de la démocratie athénienne,” Annales ESC 34, no. 3 (1979): 425-37 Google Scholar. An English translation was published twenty-five years after the original French article: Mossé, Claude, “How a Political Myth Takes Shape: Solon, ‘Founding Father’ of the Athenian Democracy,” in Athenian Democracy, ed. Rhodes, Peter J. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 242-59Google Scholar. See also Mossé, “Due miti politici: Licurgo e Solone,” in Settis, Formazione, 1325-35.

33. Mossé, “How a Political Myth Takes Shape,” 249-54 and 259.

34. Gernet, Louis, “Les dix archontes de 581,” Revue de philologie 12 (1938): 216-27 Google Scholar, here p. 227.

35. According to the figures presented in Foxhall, Lin, “A View from the Top: Evaluating the Solonian Property Classes,” in The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece, ed. Mitchell, Lynette G. and Rhodes, Peter J. (London: Routledge, 1997), 113-36Google Scholar, especially pp. 130-31. The fiscal interpretation has recently been taken up again in Flament, Christophe, “Classes censitaires soloniennes et impôt sur les produits agricoles. Réflexions sur l’organisation sociale et financière d’Athènes au VIe siècle avant notre ère,” Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire 90, no. 1 (2012): 57-76 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Even so, the author finds himself obliged to “question the accuracy of the numbers cited by Pseudo-Aristotle” (p. 62), with the exception of the qualification threshold of the pentakosiomedimnoi, evidently inherent in their name.

36. Raaflaub, Kurt A., “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia, or: What to Do with Solon’s Timocracy?,” in Blok, and Lardinois, , Solon of Athens, 390-428 Google Scholar, here pp. 407 and 417.

37. Mossé’s 1979 article is never cited in Blok and Lardinois, Solon of Athens, except by Peter J. Rhodes, “The Reforms and Laws of Solon: An Optimistic View,” 248-60, who criticizes this “postmodern” and “pessimistic” approach to Archaic history.

38. These words are taken from Zurbach, “The Formation of Greek City-States,” 628.

39. Pseudo-Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 4.3.

40. In this case, historians admit that this constitution was a later invention by Athenian historiographers, probablyinconnection with the census reform implementedby Demetrius of Phaleron. See van Wees, Hans, “Demetrius and Draco: Athens’ Property Classes and Population in and before 317 BC,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 131 (2011): 95-114 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

41. Rhodes, Peter J., A Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenaion Politeia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), 137 Google Scholar. The same position is taken in Hansen, Mogens H., The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles, and Ideology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 30 Google Scholar, and in Osborne, Robin, Greece in the Making: 1200-479 BC (London: Routledge, 1996), 221 Google Scholar.

42. Foxhall, “A View from the Top,” 129 and n. 97: “later writers extrapolated the quantitative qualifications for the bottom three classes from the name (pentakosiomedimnoi ) of the top class”; Raaflaub, “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia, ” 410: “it seems to me easier to assume... that at some time the original military telê were redefined in quantitative terms.”

43. De Ste. Croix, “The Solonian Census Classes.”

44. Ismard, Paulin, La cité des réseaux. Athènes et ses associations, VIe-Ier siècle av. J.-C. (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2010), 71 Google Scholar.

45. Since at least Cichorius, Conrad, “Zu den Namen der attischen Steuerklassen,” in Griechische Studien Hermann Lipsius zum sechzigsten Geburtstag dargebracht (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1894), 135-40Google Scholar. See, notably: Detienne, Marcel, “La phalange. Problèmes et controverses,” and Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, “La tradition de l’hoplite athénien,” both in Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, ed. Vernant, Jean-Pierre (Paris: Le Seuil, 1999), respectively 157-88Google Scholar and 213-41; Whitehead, David, “The Archaic Athenian ZEY-TITAI ,” Classical Quarterly 31 (1981): 282-86 Google Scholar; De Ste. Croix, “The Solonian Census Classes”; Raaflaub, “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia.”

46. Aristotle, Politics 4.1291a30-31.

47. Aristotle, Politics 4.1297b16-19.

48. Homer, Iliad 13.701-08.

49. van Wees, Hans, “Mass and Elite in Solon’s Athens: The Property Classes Revisited,” in Blok, and Lardinois, , Solon of Athens, 351-89Google Scholar. See also Rosivach, Vincent J., “Zeugitai and Hoplites,” Ancient History Bulletin 16 (2002): 33-43 Google Scholar and “The Thetes in Thucydides 6.43.1,” Hermes 140, no. 2 (2012): 131-39 Google Scholar.

50. Van Wees, “Mass and Elite in Solon’s Athens,” 353.

51. Ibid., 365 and 367.

52. Inscriptiones Graecae (hereafter IG) I3.1.

53. For an early example, see Pantel, Pauline Schmitt and Schnapp, Alain’s article “Image et société en Grèce ancienne: les représentations de la chasse et du banquet,” Revue archéologique 1 (1982): 57-77 Google Scholar. See also note 114.

54. Van Effenterre and Ruzé, Nomima, 1:392.

55. Hölkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, “What’s in a Code? Solon’s Laws between Complexity, Compilation and Contingency,” Hermes 133, no. 3 (2005): 280-93 Google Scholar.

56. IG I3.46: $$##ές δε [B]ρέαν έχθετον κα` ζε[υ]γι.τον ίένα,ι τος άπο[´]κος. On this point, see Raaflaub, “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia,” 417. And if we want to be (hypercritical—that is, to follow the order of the sources and accept what they say—, there is nothing in this text to suggest that such a system for dividing the citizen body was based on property qualification from that moment on.

57. Ismard, La cité des réseaux, 44-83.

58. Ibid., 74.

59. Ibid., 75.

60. Ibid., 57. Digest 47.22.4.

61. Ismard, La cité des réseaux, 83.

62. Ibid., 73. Plutarch, Life of Solon 24.2.

63. Ismard, La cité des réseaux, 70. Similarly, Zurbach, “The Formation of Greek City-States,” 651: “Nowhere else in Greece did such elaborate distinctions between property classes exist, but the reality of this system in Archaic Athens is beyond dispute.”

64. Mossé, “How a Political Myth Takes Shape,” 254. [Translation amended to reflect p. 432 of the original French paper, “distinctions de fait.”]

65. Raaflaub, “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia,” 417; Rhodes, A Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenaion Politeia, 138.

66. De Ste. Croix, “The Solonian Census Classes,” 48; Rosivach, “The Thetes in Thu-cydides,” 6.43.1, 135.

67. From Fustel, Numa Denis de Coulanges, The Ancient City. A Study on the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome [1864] (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980)Google Scholar to Bourriot, Félix, Recherches sur la nature du génos. Étude d’histoire sociale athénienne, périodes archaïque et classique (Lille: Atelier de reproduction des thèses, Université Lille III, 1976)Google Scholar and Roussel, Denis, Tribu et cité. Études sur les groupes sociaux dans les cités grecques aux époques archaïque et classique (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68. On occupational groups, see Jones, Nicholas F., The Associations of Classical Athens: The Response to Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar, without necessarily accepting the author’s main thesis on the opposition between associations and city.

69. Smithson, Evelyn Lord, “The Tomb of a Rich Athenian Lady, ca. 850 B.C.,” Hesperia 37, no. 1 (1968): 77-116 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, especially pp. 83 and 96-97; revisited by Coldstream, J. Nicolas, “The Rich Lady of the Areiopagos and Her Contemporaries: A Tribute in Memory of Evelyn Lord Smithson,” Hesperia 64, no. 4 (1995): 391-403 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, especially p. 395.

70. For Samos, see Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War8. 21 and Plutarch, Quaes-tiones Graecae 57 (Mor. 303E-304C). For Syracuse, see Herodotus, Histories 7.155. See also Adolf Boerner, Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 7.1 (1910), s.v. “Geomoroi,” col. 1219-21; Hans-Joachim Gehrke, Der Neue Pauly. Enzyklopädie der Antike, vol. 4 (1998), s.v. “Geomoroi,” col. 938. On the geomoroi of Samos, see Shipley, Graham, A History of Samos, 800-188 BC (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 39-41 Google Scholar.

71. Bravo, Benedetto, “Citoyens et libres non-citoyens dans les cités coloniales à l’époque archaïque,” in L’étranger dans le monde grec, ed. Lonis, Raoul (Nancy: Presses universitaires de Nancy, 1992), 2:43-85 Google Scholar.

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73. Bravo, “Una società legata alla terra,” 538. Aeschylus, Suppliants 613.

74. Plato, Laws 737E.

75. Plutarch, Life of Theseus 25.1: εύπατρ´δας κα` γεωμόρους κα` δημι,ουργούς.

76. Aristotle, fr. 385 Rose, apud Pollux, Onomastikon 8.111: τρ ´α, б’ ην τά εθνη πάΧα,ι, εύπατρ´δαι. γεωμόροί δημι,ουργο´.

77. Pseudo-Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 13.2: πέντε μεν ευπατριδων, τρεΐς δε ά[γ]ροίΚων, δύο δε δημι,ουργών.

78. Rhodes, Commentary on the Aristotelian Athenaion Politela, 71-74 and 183.

79. Plutarch, Life of Theseus 25.2: εύπατρίδοας [...] παρέχει,ν αρχοντας άποδους.

80. Hesychius, s.v.: γαμόροί οί περί τήν γην πονουμενοι,. η μοΐραν είληχότεςτηςγης. η οΐ άπο των έγγείων τχμημάτων τά Kocvà δί,έποντες.

81. Plutarch, Life of Solon 18.1.

82. Unless we disregard the connection to property qualification and follow the order of classes given by Aristotle in Politics 2.1274al8-21.

83. Raubitschek, Antony E., Dedications from the Athenian Akropolis: A Catalogue of the Inscriptions of the Sixth and Fifth Centuries B. C. (Cambridge: Archaeological Institute of America, 1949), 206 Google Scholar.

84. For example, Homer, Iliad 4.297 and 301; 11.151 and 529.

85. Lammert, Edmund, Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 8 (1913), s.v. “Ιππεΐς,” col. 1689-1700.Google Scholar See also: Greenhalgh, Peter A. L., Early Greek Warfare: Horsemen and Chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973)Google Scholar; Worley, Leslie J., Hippeis: The Cavalry of Ancient Greece (Boulder/Oxford: Westview Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

86. Heraclides Lembus, § 39 Dilts: φείδων άνήρ δόκιμος πλείοσι μετέδωκε xf¡ς πολιτείας, νόμον θείς εκαστον έπάναγκες τρεϕειν ϊππον.

87. Herodotus, Histories 5.77, among others. I will discuss these examples of citizen hippotrophia in greater detail in a forthcoming article: Alain Duplouy, “Hippotrophia as a Citizen Behaviour,” originally presented at the Celtic Conference in Classics, Edinburgh, June 25-28, 2014 (Leiden: Brill, to be published).

88. Lissarrague, François, L’autre guerrier: archers, peltastes, cavaliers dans l’imagerie attique (Paris: La Découverte, 1990): 191-231 Google Scholar, here p. 227.

89. Van Wees, “Mass and Elite in Solon’s Athens,” 355-56.

90. Hesiod, Works and Days 405, 451, and 581.

91. Durand, Jean-Louis, Sacrifice et labour en Grèce ancienne. Essai d’anthropologie religieuse (Paris/Rome: La Découverte/École française de Rome, 1986), 58 and 188Google Scholar.

92. Ibid., 191 and 66.

93. On the importance of sacrifices and ritual meals for the formation of the poleis via integration into a cultural community (from the Protogeometric period on), see Duplouy, “Culti e cultura nella Grecia,” 125-27.

94. Chandezon, Christophe, “L’hippotrophia et la boutrophia, deux liturgies dans les cités hellénistiques,” in Institutions, sociétés et cultes de la Méditerranée antique. Mélanges d’histoire ancienne rassemblés en l’honneur de Claude Vial, ed. Balander, Claire and Chandezon, Christophe (Bordeaux: Ausonius, 2014), 29-50 Google Scholar.

95. IG I3.831.

96. Raubitschek, Dedications from the Athenian Akropolis, pp. 400-1, no. 372.

97. Raaflaub, “Athenian and Spartan Eunomia, ” 411.

98. Benedetto Bravo, “I thetes ateniesi e la storia della parola thes, ” Studi classici. Annali della Facoltà di lettere e filosofia dell’Università degli Studi di Perugia 29 (1991-93): 69-97, here p. 95.

99. Finley, Moses I., The World of Odysseus (New York: New York Review Books, 1954), 53-55 and 70-71Google Scholar.

100. Homer, Iliad 21.441-52.

101. Homer, Odyssey 18.357-61.

102. Homer, Odyssey 11.488-91.

103. Hesiod, Works and Days 602 [translation modified]. The translation proposed in the Loeb edition is also possible: “put your bondman out of doors.”

104. Pseudo-Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution 7.4.

105. Bravo, “I thetes ateniesi e la storia della parola thes,” 96.

106. Ismard, La cité des réseaux, 51 and 55-56.

107. The few occurrences of the “Solonian property classes” known for the fifth and fourth centuries have been gathered by Gabrielsen, Vincent, “The Impact of Armed Forces on Government and Politics in Archaic and Classical Greek Poleis: A Response to Hans van Wees,” in Army and Power in the Ancient World, ed. Chaniotis, Angelos and Ducrey, Pierre (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2002), 95 Google Scholar. They are discussed in detail in de Ste. Croix, “The Solonian Census Classes,” 8-14.

108. Ruzé, Françoise, Délibération et pouvoir dans la cité grecque de Nestor à Socrate (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1997), 345 Google Scholar.

109. Ibid., 314 (Solon), 318 (Draco), and 347 (Theseus).

110. On these historiographical questions, see Duplouy, “Ploutos e cittadinanza in Grecia arcaica.”

111. Duplouy, Alain, “Les Mille de Colophon. ‘Totalité symbolique’ d’une cité d’Ionie (VIe-IIe s. av. J.-C.),” Historia 62, no. 2 (2013): 146-66 Google Scholar; Duplouy, , “Citizenship as a Performance,” in Duplouy, and Brock, , Defining Citizenship in Archaic Greece Google Scholar. For a critical approach to the institutional model, see Duplouy, , “Deux échelons de citoyenneté? En quête de la citoyenneté archaïque,” in Clisthène et Lycurgue d’Athènes. Autour du politique dans la cité classique, ed. Azoulay, Vincent and Ismard, Paulin (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2011), 89-106 Google Scholar.

112. A number of anglophone studies can be cited here, including Goldhill, Simon and Osborne, Robin, eds. Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Farenga, Vincent, Citizen and Self in Ancient Greece: Individuals Performing Justice and the Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Pantel, Pauline Schmitt, Hommes illustres. Mœurs et politique à Athènes au Ve siècle (Paris: Aubier, 2009)Google Scholar.

113. On the importance of testimonials as a proof of citizenship, including in Classical Athens, see Bertrand, Jean-Marie, “À propos de l’identification des personnes dans la cité athénienne classique,” in Individus, groupes et politique à Athènes de Solon à Mithridate, ed. Couvenhes, Jean-Christophe and Milanezi, Silvia (Tours: Presses universitaires François-Rabelais, 2007), 201-14CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

114. Aristotle, Politics 3.1275b31-32.

115. Pantel, Pauline Schmitt, “Collective Activities and the Political in the Greek City,” trans. Nixon, Lucia, in The Greek City From Homer to Alexander, ed. Murray, Owen and Price, Simon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 199-213, here p. 200Google Scholar; Pantel, Schmitt, “Entre public et privé, le politique?,” Ktèma 23 (1998): 407-13 Google Scholar.

116. Pébarthe, Christophe, “ Sur l’État ... grec? Pierre Bourdieu et les cités grecques,” Revue des études anciennes 114, no. 2 (2012): 543-65 Google Scholar, here p. 543.