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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 May 2015
Ajax is unmatched among the works of Sophocles in its barren, cruel atmosphere and its repulsive view of society. The dominant mood is hatred; sometimes it simply breaks out; but always it is there in language and action. Ajax’ curious emotional appeal to us was noted by earlier critics. ‘Odysseus is the wise man, Odysseus adopts the correct attitude, but it is to Ajax that the heart goes out.’ More recently, Kitto and Knox have modified the conception of an Ajax deserving of our pity. His suffering is largely self-inflicted, and is admirable solely because he labours so fiercely to purge his reputation of the damage caused by his wrongdoing. ‘Ajax had little Wisdom in the handling of his life, and his lack of Wisdom destroyed him, but nevertheless Ajax was magnificent.’ This view typifies the conventional opinion. Knox finds the essential issue to be the inadequacy of the old morality (τούς μέν φίλους εΰ ποιεϊν, τούς δ’ έχϑρούς κακῶς — to help your friends, harm your enemies). Its disadvantages are illustrated in Ajax’ blind retaliation at whatever cost. Knox builds a superb case from the scene where Ajax awakens to the fluctuation of human relationships in his famous soliloquy about the inroads of time (646 ff.). The instinctive resilience and self-control of Odysseus make him the triumphant figure. Indeed, the emergence of these qualities softens and harmonizes a discordant presentation of the hybris-ate motif. ‘The nature of man’s life in time, its instability, is recognized by all three parties, Ajax, Odysseus, the Atridae. The only code of conduct proper to such a vision of the human condition is that of Odysseus, a tolerant and tragic humility.’
1 Platt, A., ‘The Burial of Ajax’, CR 25 (1911), 103.Google Scholar The text is Pearson’s, A.C.Sophocles, Fabulae (Oxford, 1961).Google Scholar
2 Kitto, H.D.F., Form and Meaning in Drama (London, 1956), p. 197.Google Scholar For a similar comment, see Torrance, R.M., ‘Sophocles: Some Bearings’, HSCPh 69 (1965), 273 ff.Google Scholar and Kamerbeek, J.C., The Plays of Sophocles, Commentaries 1 (Leiden, 1963), pp. 152–3:Google Scholar ‘The hero is a committer of ϋβρς but his greatness is inconceivable detached from that νβρς.’
3 Jebb, R.C., Sophocles 7 (Cambridge, 1907), pp. 30–32,Google Scholar argued that the religious setting of the theatre was utilized to examine the tradition surrounding the worship of Ajax as a daimon in Attica. Although disputed by many, this theory has resulted in a sensitive study of Eurysaces as suppliant in a symbolic consecration of Ajax as a hero, Burian, P., ‘Supplication and Hero Cult in Sophocles’ Ajax’, GRBS 13 (1972), 151–6.Google Scholar
4 Knox, B.M.W., ‘The Ajax of Sophocles’, HSCPh 65 (1961), 3.Google Scholar
5 Dawe, R.D., ‘Some Reflections on Ate and Hamartia’, HSCPh 72 (1967), 114 ff., isolates two types of ate in the play, chief of which is the hallucinatory state visited upon Ajax by Athena.Google Scholar
6 Knox (above, n. 4), 27–8. In an earlier work, Kitto, , Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study (London, 1939), pp. 124–9, defines the intellectual greatness of Odysseus as the unifying factor of the action.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7 Athena’s reference to Ajax as προνούστερος (119) flatly contradicts the evidence both in the play and in the epic tradition. See especially Post, C.R., ‘The Dramatic Art of Sophocles’, HSCPh 23 (1912), 96 and n. 4;Google ScholarRosenmeyer, T.G., The Masks of Tragedy (University of Texas Press, 1963), 172–3.Google Scholar Athena’s observation seems rhetorical, aimed rather as an appeal to Odysseus’ own recognized intelligence and prudence.
8 The prophecy of Calchas (750 ff.) is not marginally important; so Kamerbeek, J.C., ‘Prophecy and Tragedy’, Mnem. 18 (1965), 34 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Confirmation of Athena’s real purpose is suppressed until such a time as its disclosure helps to bind together the diptych thematically, by preparing the audience to perceive the full implications of the debate scene. But see Wigodsky, M.M., The “Salvation” of Ajax’, Hermes 90 (1962), 149–58,Google Scholar who explains the prophecy as the prime indication to the audience that Ajax’ death must not be prevented. Interestingly, Ajax never openly attributes his death to anything other than the Judgment (cf. Agamemnon’s reproach of the contest, 1239 ff.).
9 The impressiveness of Athena’s revelation of herself and her powers is crucial. W.M. Calder III argues convincingly for the use of the theologeion in ‘The Entrance of Athena in Ajax’, CP 60 (1965), 114–16 and ‘Once More : The Entrance and Exit of Athena in Ajax’, CF 28 (1974), 59–61. In support of the parodos, see Ziobro, W.J., ‘The Entrance and Exit of Athena in the Ajax’, CF 26 (1972), 122–8.Google Scholar Other critics regard Athena as a symbol, the cataly st that brings the worlds of Ajax and Odysseus into conflict; cf. Whitman, C.H., Sophocles (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), pp. 67 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10 Stanford’s, W.B. ‘I am piloted by’ does not quite suit the imagery, Sophocles : Ajax (London, 1963), p. 63 ad loc.Google Scholar
11 Jebb (above, n. 3), p. 12 ad loc., sorts out the difficulties well.
12 The motif of circling activity occurs three times (19, 56, 723 ff.), always signifying the entrapment of a victim.
13 δυσμενίΐ: J. Moore’s interpretive ‘On the trail of the man I hate’ is too strong. The emphasis should rather be upon Ajax and the extent of his ill-will.
14 43 èv υμΐν, 47 έφ ϊιμς. Note Athena’s explicit reference to the Atridae as victims, but her vague tone thereafter: 58 ότ’ Άλλοτ' tiXkov έμπίτνων στρατηλάτων. Cf. Rosivach, V.J., ‘Ajax’s Intended Victims’, CW 69 (1975), 201–2.Google Scholar
15 Mockery in the form of derisive laughter and attitude is recurrent in the first half of the play (79, 304 by implication, 367, 382–3, 454, 724, 956, 961, 989). It appears a more insidious type of abuse than Agamemnon’s natural inclination to express his triumph over a fallen opponent (1349).
16 Alliteration and the pointed stress of μέντίρ convey Odysseus’ agreement with and acquiescence to Athena.
17 Biggs, P., ‘The Disease Theme in Sophocles’ Ajax, Philoctetes and Trachiniae’, CP 61 (1966), 223–7,Google Scholar discusses Ajax’ madness as a physical manifestation of his inner personality.
18 Knox (above, n. 4), 8–9, was the first to analyse the language expressive of Ajax’ attitude towards his ‘subordinate-ally’.
19 The μανία (59) inflicted upon Ajax may be an intentional and ironic perversion of the μένος that Athena often grants in battle to heroes who beg her for assistance (cf. Diomedes, Iliad v 125). See Dodds, E.R., The Greeks and the Irrational (University of California Press, 1951), pp. 8–10.Google Scholar
20 Tecmessa is also quick to divine Athena’s purpose (953–4).
21 So Simpson, M., ‘Sophocles’ Ajax: His Madness and Transformation’, Arethusa 2 (1969), 88–92, who concludes, however, that suicide is Ajax’ acknowledgment that his response to the Judgment was completely reprehensible.Google Scholar
22 Cf. 243 where Ajax’ mutilation of Odysseusis attributed to some δαίμων. In both instances the term is suggestive of the insane urges which beset Ajax as well as of the deity responsible for the affliction.
23 Kamerbeek (above, n. 2), pp. 119–20 ad loc. defends on other grounds the inclusion of 554b: ‘It is a bitter reflection of Ajax on his own condition: as long as he was in this madness, he was not conscious of his κακόν.’
24 It has often been noted that Ajax arranges the setting and trappings of his suicide to befit his ideal of honourable combat with a worthy opponent.
25 There is an excellent commentary on the paradoxical use of language in this scene by Ferguson, J., ‘Ambiguity in Ajax’, Dioniso 44 (1970), 17–18 ad loc. and 26 ff.Google Scholar
26 The Choros had earlier shown their fear of suffering along with Ajax a traitor’s death (245 ff., 265 ff.). Tecmessa’s plea to Ajax for a sympathetic response is strengthened by a description of how she and Eurysaces will be brutalized by the Atridae should Ajax remain heedless (485–524); cf. 945–4, 985–9,1019 ff., 1040ff.
27 Teucer’s reproach of ‘nobodies’ (1114), such as Menelaus, recalls Odysseus’ clever use of a similar name in an attempt to deceive the Cyclops (Od. ix 364–7). Sophocles perhaps intends this reminiscence to highlight even more the unexpectedness of the help Odysseus provides Teucer later in the scene.
28 Tecmessa is described as λεχος 6ουρώ ωτον(211).
29 On the difficulties of metre and syntax in 1416–17 see Stanford (above, n. 10), pp. 234–5 ad loc. Seyffert’s emendation of 1416 allows the play to conclude on a properly arbitrary and pathetic note. The honour of Ajax is a temporal quality.
30 Teucer’s encomium contains a much abbreviated repetition (1389–92) of Ajax’ prayer for vengeance upon his enemies (831 ff.). Odysseus’ bravery exempts him from the curse. Teucer also acclaims the rightful ancestry of his ‘friend’, which the Chorus had earlier attacked (188–9).
