Hostname: page-component-7479d7b7d-fwgfc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-10T19:29:41.092Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Interpretation of Emotion from Facial Expression for Children with Visual Processing Problems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 February 2016

G. L. Robinson  and
P. R. Whiting
G. L. Robinson*
Affiliation:
University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia
P. R. Whiting
Affiliation:
University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be Addressed to : Dr G.L. Robinson, Special Education Centre, University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW 2308 Australia.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A significant proportion of people with learning difficulties have social problems, which are often considered to be the product of school failure. However, a number of studies have suggested that these social skill problems may relate to the inability to decode subtle visual cues of body language and facial expression. The majority of studies of facial expression, however, have viewed learning disability as a unitary condition, without taking account of specific sub‐types which may have more difficulty in processing visual cues, especially for facial emotion. This study investigated children aged 8 to 12 years who were divided into three learning disability sub‐groups: 1) a visual‐perceptual sub‐type called Irlen Syndrome (n=41); 2) a group with learning disabilities, but no indications of Irlen Syndrome (n=30); and 3) a normally achieving control group (n=31). The Irlen Syndrome sub‐group had significantly lower scores for interpreting emotion from facial expression than the two other groups. The learning disabled non‐lrlen sub‐group also had significantly lower scores than the control group, but with much smaller levels of significance than those between the Irlen and control groups.

Type
Research Article
Information
Australasian Journal of Special Education , Volume 27 , Issue 2 , 2003 , pp. 50 - 67
Copyright
Copyright © The Australian Association of Special Education 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel, L., Levin, S., & Holzman, P. (1992). Abnormalities of smooth pursuit and saccadic control in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Vision Research, 32(6), 1009–1014.Google Scholar
Axelrod, L. (1982). Social perception in learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 610–613 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bachara, G. (1976). Empathy in learning disabled children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 43, 541–542.Google Scholar
Badian, N. (1983). Dyscalculia and nonverbal disorders of learning. In Myklebust, H.R. (Ed.). Progress in learning disabilities Vol. 3 (pp. 235–264). New York: Grune & Stratton.Google Scholar
Barnhill, G., Cook, K., Tebbenkamp, K., & Myles, B. (2002). The effectiveness of socials kills intervention targeting for adolescents with Asperger Syndrome and related pervasive developmental delays. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(2), 12–119 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baurn, D., Duffelmeyer, F., & Geelan, M. (1988). Resource teacher perceptions of the prevalence of social dysfunction among students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 380–381.Google Scholar
Bender, W., & Golden, I. (1990). Sub-types of students with learning disabilities as derived from cognitive, academic, behavioural, and self-concept measures. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13, 183–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, A., Sivan, A., Hamsher, K., Varney, N., & Spreen, O. (1994). Contributions to neuropsychological assessment: A clinical manual. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Boden, C., & Brodeur, D. (1999). Visual processing of verbal and nonverbal stimuli in adolescents with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32(1), 58–71.Google Scholar
Bouldoukian, J., Wilkins, A., & Evans, B. (2002). Randomised controlled trial of the effect of coloured overlays on the rate of reading of people with specific learning difficulties. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 22, 55–60.Google Scholar
Brannan, J., Solan, H., Ficarra, A., & Ong, E. (1998). Effect of luminance on visual evoked potential amplitudes in normal and disabled readers. Optometry and Vision Science, 75(4), 279–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruck, M. (1986). Social and emotional adjustments of learning disabled children: A review of the issues. In Ceci, S.J. (Ed.),. Handbook of cognitive, social and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities Vol. 1(pp. 361–380). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bruno, R. (1981). Interpretation of pictorially presented situations by learning disabled and normal children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 14, 350–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryan, T. (1998). Social competence of students with learning disabilities. In Wong, B.L. (Ed.), Learning about learning disabilities (2nd ed.). San Diego, CAL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bulmer, J. (1994). Sensory overload and general well-being: Can adults be helped by using Irlen lenses? Unpublished BSc Honours Thesis, Chester College of Higher Education, UK.Google Scholar
Burgoon., J., Buller, D., & Woodali, W. (1996). Nonverbal communication: The unspoken dialogue. NY: McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Celani, G., Battacchi, M., Arcidiacono, L. (1999). The understanding of the emotional meaning of facial expression in people with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(1), 57–66.Google Scholar
Chase, C., Ashourzadeh, A., Kelly, C., Monfette, S., & Kinsey, K. (2003). Can the magnocellular pathway read? Evidence from studies of colour. Vision Research, 43, 1211–1222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooley, E., & Triemer, D. (2002). Classroom behaviour and the ability to decode nonverbal cues in boys with severe emotional disturbance. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142(6), 741–752 Google Scholar
Cotton, M., & Evans, K. (1990). An evaluation of the Irlen lenses as a treatment for specific reading disorders. Australian Journal of Psychology, 42(1), 1–12.Google Scholar
Crick, N. & Dodge, K. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Croyle, L. (1998). Rate of reading, visual processing, colour and contrast. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 3(3), 13–20.Google Scholar
Davies, S., Bishop, D., Manstead, S., & Tantam, D. (1994). Face perception in children with autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1033–1057.Google Scholar
Demb, J., Boynton, G., Best, M., & Heeger, D. (1998). Psychophysical evidence for a magnocellular pathway deficit in dyslexia. Vision Research, 38(11), 1555–1559.Google Scholar
De Paulo, B., & Rosenthal, R. (1978). Age changes in nonverbal decoding as a function of increasing amounts of information. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 26, 280–287.Google Scholar
Diamond, A. (2000) Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Development, 71(1), 44–56 Google Scholar
Dimitrovski, L., Spector, H., Levy-Shiff, R., & Vakil, E. (1998). Interpretation of facial expressions of affect in children with learning disabilities with verbal or non-verbal deficits. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(3), 286–292, 312.Google Scholar
Eden, G., Stein, J., Wood, M., & Wood, F. (1995). Verbal and visual problems in reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28(5), 272–290.Google Scholar
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1976). Pictures of facial affect (Slides). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Evans, B., Busby, A., Jeanes, R., & Wilkins, A. (1995). Optometric correlates of Meares-Irlen Syndrome: A matched group study. Ophthalmological and Physiological Optics 15(5), 481–487.Google ScholarPubMed
Evans, B., & Patel, R., & Wilkins, A. (2002). Optometric function in visually sensitive migraine before and after treatment with tinted spectacles. Ophthalmological and Physiological Optics, 22, 130–142.Google Scholar
Evans, B., Wilkins, A., Brown, J., Busby, A., Wingfield, A., Jeanes, R., & Bald, J. (1996). A preliminary investigation into the aetiology of Meares-lrlen Syndrome. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 16(4), 286–296.Google Scholar
Ferracuti, F., & Ferracuti, S. (1992). Taratura del campione Italiano. In Test di riconoscimento di volti ignoti. Firenze: Organizzazioni Speciali.Google Scholar
Fletcher, J., & Martinez, G. (1994). An eye movement analysis of the effects of scotopic sensitivity correction on parsing and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(1), 67–70.Google Scholar
Foorman, B., Francis, D., Fletcher, J., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The rale of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 37–55.Google Scholar
Gray, J. (1999). Visual perceptual difficulties and eye behaviour: Irlen syndrome and eye colour. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy dissertation, Univer of Bristol, UK.Google Scholar
Grinspan, D., Hemphill, A., & Norwicki, S. (2003). Improving the ability to elementary school-age children to identify emotion in facial expression. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 27(1), 88–101.Google Scholar
Gross-Tsur, V., Shalev, R., Manor, O., & Amir, N. (1995). Developmental right-hemisphere syndrome: Clinical spectrum of the nonverbal learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 80–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J. (1978). Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 845–856.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammill, D., & Bryant, P. (1998). Learning disabilities diagnostic inventory. Austin, TX: Pro Ed.Google Scholar
Harandek, M., & Rourke, B. (1994). Principal identifying features of the syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities in children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(3), 144–154.Google Scholar
Hardman, P., & Morton, D. (1991). The link between developmental dyslexia, ADD, and chemical dependency. Environmental Medicine 8(3), 61–72.Google Scholar
Harris, D. & MacRow-Hill, (1999). Application of Chroma-Gen haloscopic lenses to patients with dyslexia: A double-masked placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the Optometric Association, 70(1), 629–640.Google Scholar
Hattie, J. (1992). Self concept. Hillsdale N.J.: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hobson, R. (1991). Methodological issues for experiments on autistic individual’s perception and understanding of emotion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1135–1158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holder, H., & Kirkpatrick, S. (1991). Interpretation of emotion from facial expression of children with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(3), 170–177.Google Scholar
Horrobin, D., Glen, A., & Hudson, C. (1995). Possible relevance of phospholipid abnormalities and genetic interactions in psychiatric disorders: The relationship between dyslexia and schizophrenia. Medical Hypotheses, 45, 605–613.Google Scholar
Irlen, H., & Robinson, G. (1996). The effect of Irlen coloured filters on adult perception of workplace performance: A preliminary survey. Australian Journal of Remedial Education, 1(3), 7–17.Google Scholar
Irlen, H. (1991a). Reading by the colors. New York: Avery.Google Scholar
Irlen, H. (1991b). Scotopic sensitivity syndrome - screening manual. Long Beach, CA: Perceptual Development Corporation.Google Scholar
Irvine, J., & Irvine, E. (1997). Scotopic sensitivity syndrome in a single individual (a case study). Naval Air Warfare Centre, Weapons Division, China Lake, California, April.Google Scholar
Izard, C. (1971). The face of emotion. New York: Appleton-Century Crafts.Google Scholar
Jeanes, R., Busby, A., Martin, J., Lewis, E., Stevenson, N., Pointon, D., & Wilkins, A. (1997). Prolonged use of coloured overlays for classroom reading. British Journal of Psychology, 88, 531–548.Google Scholar
Kershner, J. (1990). Self-concept and IQ as predictors of remedial success in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 368–374.Google Scholar
Kuhne, M., & Wiener, J. (2000). Stability of social status of children with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23(1), 64–75.Google Scholar
Kurachi, M., Matsui, M., Kiba, K., Suzuki, M., Tsunoda, M., & Yamaguchi, N. (1994). Limited visual search on the WAIS Picture Completion test in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 72(1), 75–80.Google Scholar
Lewine, J. (1999). Changes in visual evoked magnetic field for people with SSIS. Fourth Biannual Australasian Irlen Conference. Newcastle, Australia, May 20-22Google Scholar
Lightstone, A., Lightstone, T., & Wilkins, A. (1999). Both coloured overlays and coloured lenses can improve reading fluency, but their optimal chromacities differ. Ophthalmological and Physiological Optics, 79(4), 279–285.Google Scholar
Little, S. (1993). Nonverbal learning disabilities and socioemotional functioning: A review of recent literature. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(1), 653–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loveland, K., Nagy, E., Pearson, D., Reddoch, S., & Dodds, K. (2001). Intermodel perception of emotion in autism. Conference proceedings. Third International Clinic and Scientific Meeting: Myalgie Encephalopathy/ Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Sydney, Australia, 1-2 December.Google Scholar
MacDonnell, L., Skinner, F., Ward, P., Glen, A., Glen, A., MacDonald, D., Boyle, R., & Horrobin, D. (2000). Type IV cPLA2 in red blood cells: Evidence for differences between two subgroups on dyslexia-type adults and controls. Schizophrenia Research, 41, 228–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandai, M., Pandey, R., & Prasad, A. (1998). Facial expressions of emotions and schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24, 399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, F., MacKenzie, B., Lovegrove, W., & McNicol, D. (1993). Irlen lenses and the treatment of specific reading disability. An evaluation of outcomes and processes. Australian Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 141–150.Google Scholar
Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Hagell, A., Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1996). Reading problems and antisocial behaviour: Developmental trends in comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(4), 405–418.Google Scholar
Mazurski, E., & Bond, N. (1993). New series of slides depicting facial expression of affect: A comparison with the Pictures of Facial Affect series. Australian Journal of Psychology, 45(1), 41–47.Google Scholar
McLesky, J. (1992). Students with learning disabilities at primary intermediate and secondary grade levels: Identification and characteristics. Learning Disability Quarterly 15(1), 13–20.Google Scholar
Nicolson, R., & Fawcett, A. (1994) Reaction times and dyslexia. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47A, 29–48 Google Scholar
Nicolson, R., & Fawcett, J. (1995). Dyslexia is more than a phonological disability. Dyslexia: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 19–37.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, B. (1986). Personality variables and peer relations of children and adolescents with learning disabilities. In Ceci, S.J. (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities Vol. 1 (pp. 339–359). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Radant, A., & Hommer, D. (1992). A quantitative analysis of saccades and smooth pursuit during visual pursuit tracking: A comparison of schizophrenics with normal and substance abusing controls. Schizophrenia Research, 6(3), 225–235.Google Scholar
Richardson, A., & Ross, M. (2000). Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: A new perspective on associations between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 63(1/2), 1–9 Google Scholar
Robertson, J. (2000). Neuropsychological intervention in dyslexia: Two studies on British pupils. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(2), 137–148.Google Scholar
Robinson, G., & Conway, R. (2000). Irlen lenses and adults’. A small scale study of reading speed, accuracy, comprehension and self-image. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5(1), 4–13.Google Scholar
Robinson, G., & Foreman, P. (1999a). Scotopic Sensitivity/lrlen Syndrome and the use of coloured filters: A long-term placebo controlled and masked study of reading achievement and perception of ability. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 89, 83–113.Google Scholar
Robinson, G., & Foreman, P. (1999b). The effects of Irlen coloured filters on eye movement. Behavioral Optometry, 7(4), 5–18.Google Scholar
Robinson, G., Hopkins, B., & Davies, T. (1995). The incidence of scotopic sensitivity syndrome in secondary school population: A preliminary survey. The Bulletin for Learning Disabilities, 5(1), 36–56.Google Scholar
Robinson, G., McGregor, N. Roberts, T., Dunstan, R., & Butt, H. (2001). A biochemical analysis of people with chronic fatigue who have Irlen Syndrome: Speculation concerning immune system dysfunction. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 93, 486–504.Google Scholar
Rock, E., Fessier, M., & Church, R. (1997). The concomitance of learning disabilities and emotional/behavioral disorders: A conceptual model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(3), 245–263.Google Scholar
Roffman, A., Herzog, J., & Wershba-Gershon, P. (1994). Helping young adults understand their learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(7), 413–419.Google Scholar
Romani, A., Conte, S., Callieco, R., Bergamaschi, R., Versino, M., Lanzi, G., Zambrino, C., & Cosi, V. (2001). Visual evoked potential abnormalities in dyslexic children. Functional Neurology 16(3), 219–229.Google Scholar
Ross, R., Olincy, A., Harris, J., Sullivan, B., & Radant, A. (2000). Smooth pursuit eye movements in schizophrenia and attentional dysfunction: Adults with schizophrenia, ADHD, and a normal comparison group. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 197–203.Google Scholar
Rourke, B. (1987). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: The final common pathway of white-matter disease/ dysfunction? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 1, 209–234.Google Scholar
Rourke, B. (1988). Socioemotional disturbances of learning disabled children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 801–810.Google Scholar
Rourke, B. (1995). Treatment program for children with NLD. In Rourke, B.P. (Ed.), Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Neurodevelopmental manifestations (pp. 497–508). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Rourke, B., & Fuerst, D. (1991). Learning disabilities and psychosocial functioning: A neuropsychological perspective. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Russell, J. (1994). Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of cross-cultural studies. Psychological Bulletin 115(1), 102–141.Google Scholar
Sabornie, E. (1994). Social-affective characteristics in early adolescents identified as learning disabled and nondisabled. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 268–279.Google Scholar
Safer, M. (1981). Sex and hemispheric differences in access to code for processing emotional expressions on faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 86–100.Google Scholar
Schneider, F., Gur, R.C., Gur, R.E., Shtasel, D. (1995). Emotional processing in schizophrenia: Neurobehavioural probes in relation to psychopathology. Schizophrenia Research, 17, 67–75.Google Scholar
Scott, L., McWhinnie, H., Taylor, L., Stevenson, N., Irons, P., Lewis, E., Evans, B., & Wilkins, A. (2002). Coloured overlays in schools: Orthoptic and optometric findings. Ophthalmological and Physiological Optics, 22, 156–165.Google Scholar
Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Hynd, G. (1991). Specific nonverbal and social-skills deficits in children with learning disabilities. In Obrzut, J.E. & Hynd, G.W. (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 604–629). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Shafir, U., & Siegel, L. (1994). Subtypes of learning disabilities in adolescents and adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities 27(2), 123–134.Google Scholar
Shapiro, B., & Gallico, R. (1993). Learning disabilities. Pediatrie Clinics of North America, 40, 491–505.Google Scholar
Slaghuis, W., & Ryan, J. (1999). Spatio-temporal contrast sensitivity, coherent motion and visual persistence in developmental dyslexia. Vision Research, 39, 651–668.Google Scholar
Solan, H., Ficarra, A., Brannan, J., & Rucker, F. (1998). Eye movement efficiency in normal reading disabled elementary school children: Effects of varying luminance and wavelength. Journal of the American Optometric Association 69(7), 455–464.Google Scholar
Spafford, C., & Grosser, G. (1993). The social misperception syndrome in children with learning disabilities: Social causes versus neurological variables. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26(3), 178–189, 198.Google Scholar
Sparkes, D., Robinson, G., Dunstan, H., & Roberts, T. (2003). Plasma cholesterol levels and Irlen syndrome: A preliminary study of ten- to seventeen-year-old students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97, 743–752.Google Scholar
Streit, M., Wolwer, W., & Gaebel, W. (1997). Facial-affect recognition and visual scanning behaviour in the course of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 24, 311–317.Google Scholar
Thomas, C. (1979). An investigation of the sensitivity to nonverbal communication of learning disabled and normal children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40, 5007A. (University Microfilms No. 80-04639)Google Scholar
Toro, P., Weissberg, R., Guare, J., & Uebenstein, N. (1990). A comparison of children with and without learning disabilities on social problem-solving skill, school behavior, and family background. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 115–120.Google Scholar
Tyrrell, R., Holland, K., Dennis, D., & Wilkins, A. (1995). Coloured overlays, visual discomfort, visual search and classroom reading. Research in Reading, 18(1), 10–23 Google Scholar
Vallance, D., Cummings, R., & Humphries, T. (1998). Mediators of the risk for problem behaviour in children with language learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(2), 160–171 Google Scholar
Whiting, P., & Robinson, G. (2001). The interpretation of emotion from facial expression for. children with a visual sub-type of dyslexia. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 6(4), 6–14.Google Scholar
Whiting, P., Robinson, G., & Parrot, C. (1994). Irlen coloured filters for reading: A six year follow up. Australian Journal of Remedial Education, 26(3), 13–19.Google Scholar
Wilchesky, M., & Reynolds, T. (1986). The socially deficient LD child in context: A systems approach to assessment and treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 411–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkins, A. (1997). A system of precision: Ophthalmic tinting and its role in the treatment of visual stress. In Dickinson, C.M., Murray, I.J., & Corden, C. (Eds.), John Dalton’s colour vision legacy (pp. 695–708). London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Wilkins, A., Evans, B., Brown, J., Busby, A., Wingfield, A., Jeanes, R., & Bald, J. (1994). Double-masked placebo-controlled trial of precision spectral filters in children who use coloured overlays. Ophthalmological and Physiological Optics, 14, 365–370.Google Scholar
Wilkins, A., & Lewis, E. (1999). Coloured overlays, text and texture. Perception, 28, 641–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkins, A., Lewis, E., Smith, F., & Roland, F. (2001). Coloured overlays and their benefits for reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 24(1), 41–64.Google Scholar
Williams, M., Le Cluyse, K., & Littell, R. (1996). A wavelength specific intervention for reading disability. In Garzia, R.P. & London, R. (Eds.), Vision and Reading. St Louis: Mosby.Google Scholar
Wilson, E., & Thomas, G. (1994). Group screening book for Irlen syndrome. Sydney: Irlen Clinic.Google Scholar
Woodcock, R. (1995). Woodcock reading mastery tests - revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar