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National Indifference in the Heyday of Nationalist Mobilization? Ljubljana Military Veterans and the Language of Command

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 May 2012

Rok Stergar
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Extract

In the accounts of life in Austria-Hungary at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, one reads about a world dominated by nations and nationalism. Both contemporaries and historians describe a nationality conflict in which politics, economy, literature, music, journalism, sports, and science were all placed in the “service of the nation.” According to Helmut Rumpler, it was a time when even the once-powerful state and its bureaucracy were forced to withdraw in the face of different nationalisms. Primary sources often paint a similar picture: A German from Celje/Cilli, Fritz Zangger, claims that in his home town even “the God of Germans and of Slovenes had nothing in common.” Contemporary newspapers described incessant nationalist conflicts between Czechs and Germans, Germans and Slovenes, Slovenes and Italians, or Croats and Hungarians. Minutes of parliamentary sessions tell us about obstructionism carried out by nationalist parties, and in the War Ministry the “Disciplinary Measures to Prevent National Endeavours from Invading” [the Military] (Massregeln zur Verhütung des Eindringens nationaler Bestrebungen) grew longer every year. Therefore, it is no surprise that descriptions of a different reality in which nationalism had hardly played a role, like those of the novelist Joseph Roth, were often dismissed as figments of a nostalgic imagination or depictions of a vanishing world.

Type
Sites of Indifference to Nationhood
Information
Austrian History Yearbook , Volume 43 , April 2012 , pp. 45 - 58
Copyright
Copyright © Center for Austrian Studies, University of Minnesota 2012

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References

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13 For a detailed analysis of a coincidental series of similar events from Bohemia, see Judson, chap. “Violence in the Village,” 177–218.

14 “Mit dem Zivile war das beste Einvernehmen. Die Deutschen waren in Laib[ach] schon an die Wand gedruckt und im Gemeinderat nicht mehr vertreten, doch gab es damals noch keine ausgesprochenen nationalen Reibungen. Im Landestheater wurden abwechselend deutsche und slovenische Stücke gespielt, Offiziere und die Spitzen der Gesellschaft besuchten sowohl deutsche als auch slov[enische] Veranstaltungen.” KA, Nachlaß Wieden von Alpenbach (B/30:1), Heinrich Wieden von Alpenbach, “Lebensgeschichtliche Skizze,” unpublished manuscript, sheet 6, 2–4.

15 Stergar, Rok, “Vojski prijazen in zaželen garnizon”: Ljubljanski častniki med prelomom stoletja in prvo svetovno vojno [“A Military-Friendly and Desired Garrison Town”: The Officers of Ljubljana from the Turn of the Century to World War I], Zbirka Zgodovinskega časopisa [Zgodovinski časopis Collection], 19 (Ljubljana, 1999)Google Scholar, chap. “Ljubljansko meščanstvo in častniki, [The Townspeople of Ljubljana and the Officers]” 32–37.

16 Matjašič, 29; Goropevšek, 120; Dragan Matić, , Nemci v Ljubljani: 1861–1918 [The Germans of Ljubljana: 1861–1918], Historia, 6 (Ljubljana, 2002), 345–54Google Scholar.

17 See, for example, an article written by one of the rioters on the twenty-fifth anniversary of events: Borštnik, Božo, “Ob 25letnici septembrskih dogodkov [On the 25th Anniversary of the September Events],” Kronika slovenskih mest 1 (1934): 52–57Google Scholar. Available from dLib.si: Digitalna knjižnica Slovenije. http://www.dlib.si/documents/clanki/kronika_slovenskih_mest/1934/pdf/1934_01_15.pdf, accessed 14 June 2011.

18 Goropevšek, 120; Štih, Peter, Vasko Simoniti and Peter Vodopivec, A Slovene History: Society—Politics—Culture (Ljubljana, 2008), 338Google Scholar. Available from: http://www.sistory.si/publikacije/prenos/?urn=SISTORY:ID:2250, accessed 14 June 2011.

19 Arhiv Republike Slovenije [Archives of the Republic of Slovenia], Ljubljana (AS), Landespräsidum for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a query of the Landespräsidum for Carniola (Nr. 5079, 1908) and the attached reports by the district captains (Bezirkshauptmann) from Logatec/Loitsch, Kamnik/Stein, Ljubljana/Laibach and Radovljica/Radmannsdorf.

20 AS, Landespräsidum for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the minutes of the extraordinary general meeting of the Carniolan Military Veterans Corps (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908), and the report of the state commissioner (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908).

21 “Die Laibacher Veteranen,” Grazer Tagblatt, 12 October 1908 (evening ed.), 8; ibid., 14 October 1908 (morning ed.), 5; AS, Landespräsidum for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a letter of Oskar Potiorek to the Landespräsident of Carniola, Theodor Schwarz (Präs. Nr. 3408, Gurk/Krka in Carinthia, 20 October 1908).

22 “[G]egen die bewaffnete Macht demonstrierenden Beschluß.” AS, Landespräsidum for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a draft of the letter by the Landespräsidum to the 3rd Corps (Nr. 5372, Ljubljana/Laibach, 1908), a confidential letter of the Interior Ministry to the Landespräsidium (Nr. 39882, Vienna, 20 November 1908), a draft of the letter by the Landespräsidium to the Interior Ministry (Nr. 6100, 1908) and a confidential letter of the Interior Ministry to the Landespräsidium (Nr. 449333, Vienna, 22 December 1908); KA, KM, Präs, 70-3/4 (1908), a report by the command of the 3rd Corps to the War Ministry (Präs. Nr. 3566 (K), Graz, 31 October 1908), an administrative act of the Ministry for Local Defense (Präs. Nr. 5106, XVIII, Vienna, 25 November 1908); KA, KM, Präs, 70-3/1 (1909), an administrative act of the Ministry for Local Defense (Präs. Nr. 6358, XVIII, Vienna, 1 January 1909).

23 Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Vienna, Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv (AVA), Ministerium des Innern, Präsidiale 1848–1918, 15/5 (1909), Pr. 2175/1909 and Pr. 8625/1909. I would like to sincerely thank Laurence Cole for sending me transcripts of the documents from AVA.

24 Cole, Laurence, “Military Veterans and Popular Patriotism in Imperial Austria, 1870–1914,” in The Limits of Loyalty: Imperial Symbolism, Popular Allegiances, and State Patriotism in the Late Habsburg Monarchy, ed. Cole, Laurence and Unowsky, Daniel L., Austrian and Habsburg Studies, 9, ed. Gary B. Cohen, 36–61 (New York, 2007)Google Scholar.

25 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a circular of the Interior Ministry (Nr. 13951, Vienna, 1 April 1904), and a letter by the Landespräsident of Carniola (Nr. 1526 pr, Ljubljana/Laibach, 16 April 1904).

26 Rothenberg, Gunther E., “Toward a National Hungarian Army: The Military Compromise of 1868 and Its Consequences,” Slavic Review 31 (1972): 805–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 Rothenberg, Gunther E., The Army of Francis Joseph (1976; West Lafayette, IN, 1998), 130Google Scholar.

28 “Wenn die slowenische Kommandosprache bei den krainischen Schützen eingeführt werden würde, so gäbe dies ein sehr gefährliches Präjudiz, weil später die slawischen Abgeordneten darauf hinweisen könnten, daß etwas, was bei dieser Formation möglich war, auch bei anderen Truppenkörpern durchgeführt werden könnte.” Die politischen Ziele der slowenischen Intelligenz (Maribor/Marburg, 1916), 14Google Scholar.

29 Pokorný, Jiří, “Vysloužilecké hnutí na konci 80. let minulého stoleti [Veterans' Associations at the End of 1880s],” Documenta pragensia 6, no. 1 (1986): 386–97Google Scholar; idem, “Die Tschechen für oder gegen Österreich-Ungarn?,” Der Donauraum 35, no. 3 (1995): 30–34Google Scholar.

30 “Odkrita beseda slovenskim veterancem! [A Sincere Word to the Slovene Veterans!],” Svobodna misel: Glasilo slovenske sekcije Svobodne Misli [Freethought: The Newsletter of the Slovene Freethought Chapter] 3, no. 2 (1909): 27–28Google Scholar, at 27. Svobodna misel (“Freethought”) was a marginal magazine published in Prague by a small group of Slovene liberals, led by a former Catholic priest and a celebrated poet Anton Aškerc. They were strongly influenced by the Czech branch of the freethinking movement, Volná myšlenka.

31 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the minutes of the extraordinary general meeting of the Carniolan Military Veterans Corps (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908), and the report of the state commissioner (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908).

32 “[D]erartigen Gesinnungstüchtigkeit der nichtaktiven Mannschaft und weiter Kreise der Bevölkerung ernst gefährdenden Erscheinungen [ist] auf das Nachdrücklichste entgegenzutreten.” AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a letter of Oskar Potiorek to the Landespräsident of Carniola, Theodor Schwarz (Präs. Nr. 3408, Gurk/Krka in Carinthia, 20 October 1908).

33 KA, KM, Präs, 70–3/4 (1908), a report by the command of the 3rd Corps to the War Ministry (Präs. Nr. 3566 (K), Graz, 31 October 1908).

34 See, for example: Cvirn, Janez, “‘Kdor te sreča, naj te sune, če ti more, v zobe plune’: Dragotin Dežman in slovenstvo [‘Whoever Crosses Your Ways Should Hit You and, if Possible, Spit in Your Face’: Dragotin Dežman/Karl Deschmann and Sloveneness],” Zgodovina za vse 14, no. 2 (2007): 38–56Google Scholar, at 41–45. For the Czechs, see: King, Jeremy, Budweisers into Czechs and Germans: A Local History of Bohemian Politics, 1848–1948 (Princeton, Oxford, 2002), 128–29Google Scholar; Zahra, Tara, Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900–1948 (Ithaca, London, 2008), 30–31Google Scholar.

35 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the minutes of the extraordinary general meeting of the Carniolan Military Veterans Corps (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908).

36 Zwitter, Fran, “The Slovenes in the Habsburg Monarchy,” Austrian History Yearbook 3, part 2 (1967): 159–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Melik, Vasilij, “Slovenci in avstrijska država 1848–1918 [The Slovenes and the Austrian State 1848–1918],” in Slovenci 1848–1918: Razprave in članki [Slovenes 1848–1918: Papers and Articles], ed. Vrbnjak, Viktor, Documenta et studia historiae recentioris, 15, 78–84 (Maribor, 2002)Google Scholar.

37 Pokorný, “Vysloužilecké hnutí,” 387; Cole, 54–55.

38 I have analyzed the influence of the events of 1908 on the military attitudes toward the Slovene-speaking population in Stergar, Rok, “Fragen des Militärwesens in der slowenischen Politik 1867–1914,” Österreichische Osthefte 46 (2004): 412–17Google Scholar; ibid., Slovenci in vojska, 1867–1914: Slovenski odnos do vojaških vprašanj od uvedbe dualizma do začetka 1. svetovne vojne [The Slovenes and the Army, 1867–1914: Slovene Attitudes Regarding Military Matters from the Introduction of Dualism until the Beginning of First World War], Historia, 9 (Ljubljana, 2004), chap. “Pred vojno: napoved spora vojske s Slovenci [Before the War: First Signs of the Army's Conflict with Slovenes],” 207–47. See also: Cole, 55.

39 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the minutes of the extraordinary general meeting of the Carniolan Military Veterans Corps (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908).

40 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the German translation of the minutes of the founding meeting of Krieger-Korps (Nr. 6, Ljubljana/Laibach, 13 March 1910).

41 “[M]öglichst viele […] Landeskinder des Herzogthums KRAIN […] bei gutem Geiste zu erhalten und der Monarchie in bedrohlichen und ernsten Zeiten die Dienste der Vereinsmitglieder zur Verfügung zu stellen.” AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, a letter by the command of the 3rd Corps to the Landespräsidium (Nr. 1648 (K), Graz, 17 May 1910), and a letter of Warrior Corps leadership to the Landespräsidium (Nr. 8, Ljubljana/Laibach, 2 June 1910).

42 Zahra, “Imagined Noncommunities,” 98–106. Gerald Stourzh suggests “anti-nationalism” as a more suitable term for this kind of national indifference. Cf. Stourzh, Gerald, “The Ethnicizing of Politics and ‘National Indifference’ in Late Imperial Austria,” in Der Umfang der österreichischen Geschichte: Ausgewählte Studien 1990–2010, Studien zur Politik und Verwaltung, 99, ed. Brunner, Christian, Mantl, Wolfgang, and Welan, Manfried, 283–323 (Vienna, Köln, Graz, 2011), 302–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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44 Walter Lukan, “Die politische Meinung der Slowenischen Bevölkerung 1917/18 im Spiegel der Zensurberichte des Gemeinsamen Zentralnachweisbureaus für Kriegsgefangene in Wien: (mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Verfassers der Berichte – Milan Hodža),” in Nationalismus, Gesellschaft und Kultur in Mitteleuropa im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert: Festschrift für Jiří Kořalka zum 75. Geburtstag=Nacionalismus, společnost a kultura ve střední Evropě 19. a 20. století: Pocta Jiřímu Kořalkovi k 75. narozeninám, ed. Jiří Pokorný, Luboš Velek, and Alice Velková, 217–83 (Prague, 2007); Petra Svoljšak, “Slovenci v primežu avstrijske cenzure [Slovenes in the Vise of Austrian Censors],” in Velika vojna in Slovenci: 1914–1918 [The Great War and the Slovenes], ed. Peter Vodopivec and Katja Kleindienst, 109–27 (Ljubljana, 2005). For a general survey of the censorship of the POWs correspondence, see: Rachamimov, Alon, “Arbiters of Allegiance: Austro-Hungarian Censors during World War I,” in Constructing Nationalities in East Central Europe, ed. Judson, Pieter M. and Rozenblit, Marsha L., 157–77, Austrian History, Culture, and Society (Oxford, 2005)Google Scholar.

45 Melik, Vasilij, “Začetki slovenskega političnega življenja in Lovro Toman [The Beginnings of Slovene Politics and Lovro Toman]” in Slovenci 1848–1918: Razprave in članki, ed. Vrbnjak, Viktor, Documenta et studia historiae recentioris, 15, 278–89 (Maribor, 2002), 280–81; idem.Google Scholar, “Problemi in dosežki slovenskega narodnega boja v šestdesetih in sedemdesetih letih v 19. stoletju [Problems and Achievements of the Slovene National Struggle in the Sixties and Seventies of the 19th Century],” ibid., 239–44, 241.

46 Cvirn, Janez, “Nemško-slovenski odnosi osrednji problem slovenske zgodovine [German-Slovene Relations as the Central Problem of Slovene History],” in Slovenija 1848–1998: iskanje lastne poti, ed. Granda, Stane and Šatej, Barbara, 86–89 (Ljubljana, 1998), 88Google Scholar.

47 For an excellent critique of ethnicism in Central European historiography, see: King, Jeremy, “The Nationalization of East Central Europe: Ethnicism, Ethnicity, and Beyond,” in Staging the Past: The Politics of Commemoration in Habsburg Central Europe, 1848 to the Present, ed. Bucur, Maria and Wingfield, Nancy M., 112–52 (West Lafayette, IN, 2001)Google Scholar. For Slovene historiography, see: Kosi, Jernej, “Je bil proces formiranja slovenskega naroda v 19. stoletju res zgolj končni nasledek tisočletne slovenske kontinuitete? [Was the 19th Century Process of the Formation of the Slovene Nation Truly a Mere Continuation of the Millenary Slovene Continuity?],” Zgodovinski časopis 64 (2010): 154–75Google Scholar.

48 Cvirn, Janez, “Deželna in narodna zavest na (Spodnjem) Štajerskem [Provincial and National Consciousness in (Lower) Styria],” in Avstrija. Jugoslavija. Slovenija: Slovenska narodna identiteta skozi čas [Austria, Yugoslavia, Slovenia: Slovene National Identity through Time], ed. Nećak, Dušan, Historia, 74–84 (Ljubljana, 1997)Google Scholar.

49 About the circulation of Štajerc, see Cvirn, Janez, Trdnjavski trikotnik: Politična orientacija Nemcev na Spodnjem Štajerskem (1861–1914) [The Fortress Triangle: Political Orientation of Germans in Lower Styria (1861–1914)] (Maribor, 1997), 344–54Google Scholar; about the election results, see Goropevšek, Branko, Štajerski Slovenci, kaj hočemo!: Slovenska politika na Štajerskem v letih 1906–1914 [Styrian Slovenes, What Do We Want!: Slovene Politics in Styria, 1906–1914], zgodovini.ce, 3 (Celje, 2005), 152–54Google Scholar.

50 The literature on the so-called “Windische” is very extensive. A good starting point is Moritsch, Andreas, “Das Windische—eine nationale Hilfsideologie,” in Problemfelder der Geschichte und Geschichtsschreibung der Kärntner Slovenen, ed. Moritsch, Andreas, ed., Geschichte, Unbegrenzte, 1, 15–29 (Klagenfurt, Ljubljana, Vienna, 1995)Google Scholar.

51 See, above all, Pleterski, Janko, Narodna in politična zavest na Koroškem: Narodna zavest in politična orientacija prebivalstva slovenske Koroške v letih 1848–1914 [National and Political Consciousness in Carinthia: National Consciousness and Political Orientation of the Population of Slovene Carinthia in the Years 1848–1914], Razprave in eseji, 7 (Ljubljana, 1965)Google Scholar.

52 Cvirn, “Deželna in narodna zavest,” 78–79.

53 Matić, 423–27. Such development was almost typical; see Judson, Pieter M.Exclusive Revolutionaries: Liberal Politics, Social Experience, and National Identity in the Austrian Empire, 1848–1914, Social History, Popular Culture, and Politics in Germany, ed. Eley, Geoff (Ann Arbor, MI, 1996)Google Scholar, chapter “From Liberalism to Nationalism: Inventing a German Community, 1880–85,” 193–222.

54 For a short survey of the language statistics, see Brix, Emil, “Die zahlenmässige Präsenz des Deutschtums in den südslawischen Kronländern Cisleithaniens 1848–1918: Probleme der Nationalitätenstatistik,” in Geschichte der Deutschen im Bereich des heutigen Slowenien 1848–1941, ed. Rumpler, Helmut and Suppan, Arnold, Schriftenreihe des Österreichischen Ost- und Südosteuropa-Instituts, ed. Richard Georg Plaschka, 12, 43–62 (Vienna, Munich, 1988)Google Scholar.

55 “Wir sind Österreicher, wir haben nur einen Kaiser und zu diesem halten wir; wenn Sie Ihre frühere Äusserung nochmals wiederholen, bekommen Sie eine Ohrfeige.” KA, KM, Präs, 53–11/1 (1909), a report by the command of 3rd Corps to the War Ministry (Präs. Nr. 1119, Graz, 6 March 1909). The sentence was written in German in the report, but it had been undoubtedly said in Slovene.

56 Cf. Pleterski, Janko, “Avstrija in Slovenci leta 1912–1913 [Austria and the Slovenes in the Years 1912–13],” in Študije o slovenski zgodovini in narodnem vprašanju, Documenta et studia historiae recentioris, 2 (Maribor, 1981), 169Google Scholar.

57 Allmayer-Beck, Johann Christoph, “Die bewaffnete Macht in Staat und Gesellschaft,” in Die Habsburgermonarchie 1848–1918, ed. Wandruszka, Adam and Urbanitsch, Peter, vol. 5, Die bewaffnete Macht (Vienna, 1987), 96–97Google Scholar; cf. Schmidl, Erwin A., “Die k.u.k. Armee: integrierendes Element eines zerfallenden Staates?,” in Das Militär und der Aufbruch in die Moderne, 1860 bis 1890: Armeen, Marinen und der Wandel von Politik, Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft in Europa, den USA sowie Japan, ed. Epkenhans, Michael and Groß, Gerhard P., Beiträge zur Militär- und Kriegsgeschichte 60, 143–50 (Munich, 2003)Google Scholar.

58 Cole, 42–55.

59 AS, Landespräsidium for Carniola Records, Police Matters, bundle 2, the minutes of the extraordinary general meeting of the Carniolan Military Veterans Corps (Ljubljana/Laibach, 11 October 1908).