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² A dictionary definition of the verb ‘to cleave’ is as follows: ‘To split along natural lines of division’. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition (New York: Random House, 1968), p. 251.Google Scholar

³ Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, Selected Works (New York: International Press, 1962), p. 334.Google Scholar

⁴ Dahrendorf, Ralf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1967), p. 25.Google Scholar

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⁶ Gerth, Hans and Mills, C. Wright, eds., From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 181.Google Scholar

⁷ Gerth, and Mills, , From Max Weber, p. 194.Google Scholar

⁸ Lipset, Seymour M. and Rokkan, Stein, ‘Cleavage Structures, Party Systems and Voter Alignments’, in Lipset, Seymour M. and Rokkan, Stein, eds., Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: Free Press, 1967), 1–64, pp. 6ff.Google Scholar

⁹ Rokkan has developed this argument in more detail in Rokkan, Stein, Citizens, Elections an Parties (New York: David McKay, 1970).Google Scholar Other examples of this usage may be found in the work of Juan Linz, ‘The Party System of Spain; Past and Future’ and ‘Cleavage and Consensus in West German Polities’, in Lipset, and Rokkan, , Party Systems and Voter Alignments, 197–282Google Scholar and 283–324, and Janowitz, Morris and Segal, David, ‘Social Cleavage and Party Affiliation: Germany, Great Britain and the United States’, in Palma, Guiseppe Di, ed., Mass Politics (Chicago: Markham, 1972), 200–25.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society.

¹¹ Dahrendorf, , Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society, p. 165.Google Scholar

¹² Eckstein, Harry, Division and Cohesion in Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 34.Google Scholar

¹³ Eckstein, , Division and Cohesion in Democracy, p. 33.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Daalder, Hans, ‘Parties, Elites and Political Developments in Western Europe’, in Lapalombara, Joseph and Weiner, Myron, eds., Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1966), 43–78, pp. 66–7.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Mattei Dogan, ‘Political Cleavage and Social Stratification in France and Italy’, in Lipset, and Rokkan, , Party Systems and Voter Alignments, 129–97, pp. 182–3.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Dahl, Robert, Political Oppositions in Western Democracies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), pp. 48ff.Google Scholar

¹⁷ In his terminological dictionary, Geoffrey Roberts defines ‘cleavage': ‘The condition of division between members of a political group or political system, and thus the opposite of “consensus"’. Roberts, Geoffrey, A Dictionary of Political Analysis (New York: St Martin's Press, 1971), p. 33.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Allardt, Eric and Pesonen, Pertti, ‘Cleavages in Finnish Polities’, in Lipset, and Rokkan, , Party Systems and Voter Alignments, 325–66, p. 325.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Allardt, and Pesonen, , ‘Cleavages in Finnish Polities’, p. 325.Google Scholar

²⁰ Rose, Richard and Urwin, Derek, ‘Social Cohesion, Political Parties and Strains in Regimes’, Comparative Political Studies, II (1969–1970), 7–67, pp. 12–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ Palma, Giuseppe Di, The Study of Conflict in Western Society: A Critique of the End of Ideology (Morristown, N. J.: General Learning Press, 1973), p. 3.Google Scholar

²² Dahl, , Political Oppositions in Western Democracies, p. 367.Google Scholar

²³ Rose, and Urwin, , ‘Social Cohesion, Political Parties and Strains in Regimes’, p. 20.Google Scholar

²⁴ Sartori, Giovanni, ‘From the Sociology of Politics to Political Sociology’, in Lipset, Seymour M., ed., Politics and the Social Sciences (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 65–100, p. 84.Google Scholar

²⁵ Lipset, Seymour M., Revolution and Counterrevolution (Garden City, N. Y.: Anchor Books, 1970), p. 228.Google Scholar

²⁶ Converse, Philip, ‘Of Time and Partisan Stability’, Comparative Political Studies, II (1969), 139–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁷ Lipset, , Revolution and Counterrevolution, pp. 321 ff.Google Scholar

²⁸ Lipset, , Revolution and Counterrevolution, pp. 270 ff.Google Scholar

²⁹ Rose, and Urwin, , ‘Social Cohesion, Political Parties and Strains in Regimes’, p. 39.Google Scholar

³⁰ Lipset, , Revolution and Counterrevolution, pp. 242–3.Google Scholar

³¹ Lipset, , Revolution and Counterrevolution, p. 243.Google Scholar

³² Rose, and Urwin, , ‘Social Cohesion, Political Parties and Strains in Regimes’, pp. 40–2.Google Scholar

³³ See, for example, Lijphart, Arend, ‘Typologies of Democratic Systems’, in Lijphart, Arend, ed., Politics in Europe (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969), 46–80Google Scholar and Nordlinger, Eric A., Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Center for International Affairs, 1972).Google Scholar

³⁴ The literature on ‘cross-cutting cleavages’ is voluminous. In addition to those cited in the text, see also, Truman, David, The Governmental Process (New York: Knopf, 1951)Google Scholar and Kornhauser, William, The Politics of Mass Society (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959).Google Scholar

³⁵ Rae, Douglas and Taylor, Michael, The Analysis of Political Cleavage (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), pp. 87–8.Google Scholar

³⁶ Lipset, Seymour M., Political Man (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1963), pp. 77–8.Google Scholar

³⁷ Lipset, , Revolution and Counterrevolution, pp. 276 ff.Google Scholar

³⁸ Dahl, , Political Oppositions in Western Democracies, p. 385.Google Scholar

³⁹ Rae, and Taylor, , The Analysis of Political Cleavage, p. 14.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Examples of this growing literature are Lemarchand, René and Legg, Keith, ‘Political Clientelism and Development’, Comparative Politics, IV (1972), 149–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lande, Carl, ‘Networks and Groups in Southeast Asia: Some Observations on the Group Theory of Polities’, American Political Science Review, LXVII (1973), 103–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Scott, James, ‘Patron-Client Politics and Political Change in Southeast Asia’, American Political Science Review, LXVI (1972), 428–44.Google Scholar

⁴¹ In his analysis of cultural anthropology, Goodenough calls for the development of concepts such that descriptions of particular cases take place along dimensions of cross-national utility. This is a crucial initial step for political science as well. Goodenough, Ward, Description and Classification in Cultural Anthropology (Chicago: Aldine, 1971).Google Scholar

⁴² Allardt, and Pesonen, , ‘Cleavages in Finnish Polities’, p. 345.Google Scholar

⁴³ See Lijphart, ‘Typologies of Democratic Systems’, and Hans Daalder, ‘The Netherlands: Opposition in a Segmented Society’, in Dahl, Robert, Political Oppositions in Western Democracies, 188–236.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Daalder, , ‘Parties, Elites and Political Developments’, p. 68.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Daalder, , ‘Parties, Elites and Political Developments’, p. 67.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ In addition to the already cited literature, Henry Kerr, ‘Social Cleavages and Partisan Conflict in Switzerland’, paper presented to the IX World Congress, International Political Science Association, Montreal, 1973, presents a detailed argument specifying the essential role played by these intervening variables in the analysis of political cleavage and political conflict.

⁴⁷ For the purposes of this essay the nominal distinction between types of elites and mass political conflict is most useful. Note, however, that each is easily transformed into an interval measure. For a very useful and suggestive analysis which provides an interval measure for these dimensions see Gurr, Ted Robert and Mcclelland, Muriel, Political Performance: A Twelve Nation Study (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics, 1971).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Leites, Nathan, On the Came of Politics in France (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1959)Google Scholar and Macrae, Duncan, Parliament, Parties and Society in France: 1946–1958 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1967).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Zuckerman, Alan, ‘Social Structure and Political Competition: The Italian Case’, World Politics, XXIV (1972), 428–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁰ Gurr and McClelland, Political Performance.

⁵¹ Sartori, ‘From the Sociology of Politics to Political Sociology’.

⁵² Di Palma, The Study of Conflict in Western Society.

⁵³ Lijphart, ‘Typologies of Democratic Systems’.

⁵⁴ Nordlinger, Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies.

⁵⁵ Alan Zuckerman, ‘On the Institutionalization of Political Clienteles: Party Factions and Cabinet Coalitions in Italy’, paper presented to the Meetings of the American Political Science Association, New Orleans, 1973.

⁵⁶ Lipset, , Political Man, p. 230.Google Scholar As noted above, Lipset's later work incorporates social segments in addition to social class.

⁵⁷ Mosca, Gaetano, Teorica Dei Governi e Del Governo Parlamentare (Milan: Giuffe, 1968), pp. 246–7 (my translation).Google Scholar