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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 January 2009
According to Western observers Soviet political scientists have been making substantial advances in recent decades in their understanding of the United States. It is often pointed out, however, that cultural distance causes special problems. Soviet authors, it is claimed, tend to create images of their object of study which are coloured by conceptions of political behaviour specific to their own society. Although this is incontestable, it is worth remarking that American and British observers of Soviet politics and ideology are not exempt from the same kind of failing.
1 See, for example, Hough, J. F., ‘The Man and the System’, Problems of Communism, XXV, no. 2 (1976), 1–17Google Scholar; Breslauer, G. W., ‘Khrushchev Revisited’, Problems of Communism, XXV, no. 5 (1976), 18–33Google Scholar. A Soviet social scientist now living in the West has appealed to Americans to exchange their ‘black and white’ image of Soviet politics for a ‘multicolored’ one. See Yanov, A., Detente after Brezhnev: The Domestic Roots of Soviet Foreign Policy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 74.Google Scholar
2 Zimmerman, W., Soviet Perspectives on International Relations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969)Google Scholar; Zimmerman, W., ‘Soviet Perceptions of the United States’, in Dallin, A. and Larson, T., eds, Soviet Politics since Khrushchev (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), pp. 163–79Google Scholar; Griffiths, F., Images, Politics and Learning in Soviet Behavior towards the United States (doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1972)Google Scholar. See, too, Marantz, P., ‘Prelude to Detente: Doctrinal Change under Khrushchev’, International Studies Quarterly, XIX (1975). 501–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
3 Zimmerman, , ‘Soviet Perceptions of the United States’, p. 165.Google Scholar
4 Schwartz, Morton, Soviet Perceptions of the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978)Google Scholar. This work is based principally on analysis of articles from the journal of the Soviet Institute for the Study of the United States and Canada (SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya, 1970–1976) and of a number of specialized works on United States foreign policy and international relations.
5 Critics from left and right continue to ignore or minimize the distinction between official and academic views. See Mandel, E., Late Capitalism (London: New Left Books, 1975), p. 516Google Scholar; Claudin, F., The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform (Harmondsworth, Middx.: Penguin, 1975)Google Scholar; Polsby, N. W., ‘JFK through Russian Eyes’, Political Science Quarterly, XC (1975), 117–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6 Mills, R. M., ‘One Theory in Search of Reality’, Political Science Quarterly, LXXXVII (1972), 63–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Remnek, R., ‘Soviet Scholars and Soviet Policy towards India’, in Remnek, R., ed., Social Scientists and Policy Making in the USSR (New York: Praeger, 1977)Google Scholar; Eran, O., The Mezhdunarodniki (Tel Aviv: Turtledove, 1979)Google Scholar; Dawisha, K., Soviet Foreign Policy Towards Egypt (London: Macmillan, 1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
7 Extended accounts of the ‘Stalinist model’ can be found in Nordahl, R., The Soviet Model of Monopoly Capitalist Politics (doctoral dissertation, Princeton University, 1972)Google Scholar; Nordahl, R., ‘Stalinist Ideology: The Case of the Stalinist Interpretation of Monopoly Capitalist Polities’, Soviet Studies, XXVI (1974), 239–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Griffiths, , Images, Politics and LearningGoogle Scholar; Barghoorn, F. A., The Soviet Image of the United States (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950).Google Scholar
8 Powell, D. E. and Shoup, P., ‘The Emergence of Political Science in Communist Countries’, American Political Science Review, LXIV (1970), 572–88, p. 580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See too Theen, R., ‘Political Science in the USSR: “To be or not to be?”’, World Politics, XXIII (1971), 684–703CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Theen, R., ‘Political Science in the USSR’, Problems of Communism, XXI, no. 3 (1972), 64–70.Google Scholar
9 There are conflicting views on this last point. Cf. Bahro, R., ‘The Alternative in Eastern Europe’, New Left Review, CVI (1977), 3–37, pp. 6–7Google Scholar; Varga, E., ‘Political Testament’, New Left Review, LXII (1970), 31–43, pp. 39–40Google Scholar; Medvedev, R., On Socialist Democracy (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 49–50, 66–7.Google Scholar
10 Hill, R., Soviet Politics, Political Science and Reform (London: Martin Robertson, 1980), pp. 162–3.Google Scholar
11 Churchward, L. G., ‘Towards a Soviet Political Science’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, XII (1966), 66–75, p. 71.Google Scholar
12 Schwartz's, Soviet Perceptions of the United StatesGoogle Scholar leaves a rather ambiguous impression on this point. The author states that Soviet ‘analysts still remain loyal to basic doctrinal formulations, which they must’, but he also maintains that ‘government policies are now recognized to be the product of a medley of influences – political, bureaucratic, historical, even psychological – as well as the once-dominant “class interests” of the “ruling circles”’; that ‘the American political system is seen to be a policy-making apparatus independent of its economic substructure’; and so on. See pp. 37, 154, 155 (my italics).
13 This article is based on research carried out at the Centre for Russian and East European Studies of the University of Birmingham. The results will be published in fuller form in my book, The Soviet View of the American Political System (London: Macmillan, forthcoming). Primary sources used include the journals SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya, Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya, Kommunist, Voprosy filosofii, Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, International Affairs (Moscow), a sample of the books on Western and especially American politics published over the last ten years by the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of State and Law, Institute of the World Economy and International Relations and Institute for the Study of the United States and Canada, and a smaller number of the larger-circulation works published by the Soviet Academy of Social Sciences and other CPSU bodies.
14 Failure to acknowledge this diversity is the most serious shortcoming of a publication issued by the Stanford Research Institute in 1977: Gibert, S. P., Soviet Images of America (New York: Crane, Russak, 1977).Google Scholar This book focuses on Soviet perceptions of détente, the strategic balance, American foreign policy formation and American intentions. There is assumed to exist some monolithic ‘Soviet view’, which is reproduced by accumulating quotations from different authors; only the sparseness of the evidence cited makes it possible to avoid overt contradictions. See the review by Marantz, P., ‘Probing Moscow's Outlook’, Problems of Communism, XXVIII, no. 2 (1979), 49–54.Google Scholar
15 See, for example, articles by V. Lan and V. Noritsky published in Mirovoe khozyaistvo i mirovaya politika.
16 Beloff, N., ‘Escape from Boredom: A Defector's Story’, Atlantic Monthly, 11 1980, p. 44.Google Scholar
17 Hill, , Soviet Politics, Political Science and ReformGoogle Scholar. The annual publications of the Soviet Association of Political Sciences, which have been appearing since 1976, give a good idea of the range of work being done.
18 Marko, K., ‘Soviet Ideology and Sovietology’, Soviet Studies, XIX (1968), p. 477.Google Scholar
19 Lenin, V. I., ‘The State and Revolution’, in Lenin, V. I., Selected Works (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1969), p. 282.Google Scholar
20 Lenin, , ‘The State and Revolution’, p. 288.Google Scholar
21 Stalin, J. V., Ekonomicheskie problemy sotsializma v SSSR (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1952), p. 43Google Scholar. The word ‘monopoly’ in Soviet usage has lost its technical economic sense: it embraces any large scale capitalist enterprise (i.e. ‘big business’).
22 Burlatsky, F. M., Lenin, gosudarstvo, politika (Moscow: Nauka, 1970), pp. 266–8Google Scholar; Guliev, V. E., Sovremennoe imperialisticheskoe gosudarstvo. Voprosy teorii (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya, 1973), pp. 67–100.Google Scholar
23 See, for example, Griffiths, , Images, Politics and Learning, pp. 86, 117, 201Google Scholar; Schwartz, , Soviet Perceptions of the United States, p. 40.Google Scholar
24 Poulantzas, N., Classes in Contemporary Capitalism (London: New Left Books, 1975), p. 158Google Scholar. See criticisms originating from various schools of Western Marxists, such as Wirth, M., ‘Towards a Critique of State Monopoly Capitalism’, Economy and Society, VI (1977), 284–312, p. 306CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Altvater, E., ‘Some Problems of State Interventionism’, in Holloway, J. and Picciotto, S., eds, State and Capital: A Marxist Debate (London: Edward Arnold, 1978), pp. 40–2Google Scholar; Mandel, , Late Capitalism, pp. 516–17.Google Scholar
25 Tumanov, V. A., ‘Vozrastanie roli burzhuaznogo gosudarstva i burzhuaznaya ideologiya’, in Tumanov, V. A., ed., Sovremennye burzhuaznye ucheniya o kapitalisticheskom gosudarstve (Moscow: Nauka, 1967), p. 54.Google Scholar
26 Tumanov, V. A. and Levin, I. D., eds, Politicheskii mekhanizm diktatury manopolii (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), pp. 173–4Google Scholar. See also Burlatsky, , Lenin, gosudarstvo, poliiika, pp. 90–1Google Scholar; Inozemtsev, N. N., Contemporary Capitalism: New Developments and Contradictions (Moscow: Progress, 1974), p. 81.Google Scholar
27 The phrase is borrowed from Szymanski, A., The Capitalist State and the Politics of Class (Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1978), pp. 272–5Google Scholar. See too Block, F., ‘The Ruling Class Does Not Rule’, in Quinney, R., ed., Capitalist Society: Readings for a Critical Sociology (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1979), pp. 128–40.Google Scholar
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29 The class nature of the state is demonstrated by Soviet authors with a greater or lesser degree of sophistication, but it is never denied. Griffiths occasionally suggests a degree of revisionism on this point; this is not borne out by the evidence. Compare A. Galkin: ‘Those active in the political sphere must take into account the variety of ruling class interests and also the positions taken up by the other classes’, with Griffiths' paraphrasing: ‘The political elite could approach problems from a position that represented the interests of the whole of the ruling class and other classes as well’ (my italics). See Galkin, A., ‘Pravyashchaya elita sovremennogo kapitalizma’, Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya, no. 3 (1969), p. 83Google Scholar; and Griffiths, , Images, Politics and Learning, p. 205.Google Scholar
30 See, for example, Mills, C. Wright, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), p. 267Google Scholar; Domhoff, G. W., The Higher Circles: The Governing Class in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), pp. 309–55Google Scholar; Burns, J. M., Presidential Government: The Crucible of Leadership (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 56–7Google Scholar; Schlesinger, A. M. Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 404.Google Scholar
31 Rose, A. M., The Power Structure (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 1, note.Google Scholar
32 Nordahl, , The Soviet Model of Monopoly Capitalist Politics, p. 229Google Scholar; Schwartz, , Soviet Perceptions of the United States, pp. 34–60.Google Scholar
33 Because of social ties, interlocking directorships, and so on. See Mills, Wright, The Power Elite, pp. 121–2Google Scholar; Domhoff, , The Higher Circles: The Governing Class in America;Google ScholarUseem, M., ‘The Inner Group of the American Capitalist Class’Google Scholar, in Quinney, , Capitalist Society: Readings for a Critical Sociology, pp. 109–24.Google Scholar
34 Guliev, V. E., ‘Teoriya “plyuralisticheskoi demokratii”’, in Sovremennye burzhuaznye ucheniya o kapitalisticheskom gosudarstve, pp. 76, 82Google Scholar; Beglov, I. I., Sobstvennost' i vlasl' (Moscow: Nauka, 1971), pp. 385–94.Google Scholar
35 See the articles in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya by Kobrinskaya, (1979, no. 11)Google Scholar, Lavrova, (1979, no. 1)Google Scholar, Ovinnikov, (1979, no. 8)Google Scholar; also by Svanidze, in Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya (1978, no. 11).Google Scholar
36 Borisyuk, V., ‘Usilenie politicheskoi aktivnosti amerikanskogo biznesa’Google Scholar, in Peregudov, S. P. and Kholodkovsky, K. G., eds, Novye yavleniya v mekhanisme politicheskogo gospodstva manopolii, pp. 54–110Google Scholar. The quotation is from p. 62. Borisyuk refers repeatedly to Epstein, E. M., The Corporation in American Politics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969).Google Scholar
37 Despite numerous criticisms by Soviet authors – see Varga, E., Ocherki po problemam politekonomii kapitalizma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1964), pp. 51–5Google Scholar and Burlatsky, F. M., Lenin, gosudorstvo, polilika, p. 219Google Scholar – the idea of the centrality of the National Association of Manufacturers and the Chamber of Commerce has been remarkably persistent. It is put forward again, although more tentatively, in a recent book by Sakharov, N. A., Predprinimatel'skie assosiatsii v politicheskoie zhizni SShA (Moscow: Nauka, 1980).Google Scholar
38 Sivachev, N. and Yazkov, N., History of the USA since World War I (Moscow: Progress, 1976), p. 281Google Scholar. Cf. American pluralists, e.g. Rose, , The Power Structure, pp. 22–3.Google Scholar
39 Milbrath, Lester W., The Washington Lobbyists (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963)Google Scholar; Dexter, L. A., How Organizations are Represented in Washington (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969)Google Scholar; and Rose, , The Power Structure.Google Scholar
40 Zyablyuk, N. G., SShA: lobbizm i politika (Moscow: Mysl', 1976), p. 80Google Scholar. See too his contributions to SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1974, no. 12; 1978, no. 8).Google Scholar
41 Chetverikov, S. B., Kto i kak delaet politiku SShA? (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya, 1974), pp. 31–2, 41, 45–7Google Scholar. Most frequently cited are Redford, Jacob, Pfiffner and Presthus, Albrow, Rourke and Destler; also Kissinger, Sorenson, Rogers and other retired officials.
42 Reviewing Soviet accounts of United States foreign policy making, Schwartz states that references to the involvement of economic interests are rarely ‘anything more than ritualistic’ (Soviet Perceptions of the United States, p. 64)Google Scholar. Yet there has been a great deal written on the Council on Foreign Relations (see references above) as an agency of ‘monopoly’ control, and also on the Trilateral Commission – see articles in Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya by Matveev, (1977, no. 3)Google Scholar and Utkin, (1978, no. 4)Google Scholar, and in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya by Turkatenko, (1977, no. 9)Google Scholar – as well as on other elements of the system of foundations, brains trusts, and consultative committees which form the ‘thousands of threads’, linking the state and the monopolies, referred to by Chetverikov.
43 Burlatsky, F. M., The Modern State and Politics (Moscow: Progress, 1978), p. 10.Google Scholar
44 For examples of the former, see campaign reports published in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya, by Savel'ev and Linnik; for examples of the latter see contributions to the same journal by Lyuberatskaya, (1977, no. 3)Google Scholar and Zorin, (1978, no. 8).Google Scholar
45 Savel, V. A.'ev, ‘Doroga k Belomu domu’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1976, no. 11), p. 44Google Scholar; Zorin, V. S., Savchenko, V. P., ‘Krizis dvukhpartiinoi sistemy i budushchie vybory’, SShA: ekonomika, polilika, ideologiya (1979, no. 6), p. 23.Google Scholar
46 Volkov, F. D., Velikobritaniya – trudnye vremena (Moscow: Znanie, 1977), p. 48.Google Scholar
47 The subject of Soviet views of mass politics, the ‘anti-monopoly alliance’, and the prospects for a parliamentary transition to socialism is a very large and complicated one, and is less relevant to the United States than to Western Europe. For these reasons the present section on political conflict will be devoted mainly to conflict inside the ruling class.
48 Varga, E. S., Osnovnye voprosy ekonomiki i politiki imperializma (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), pp. 73–5.Google Scholar
49 It is noticeable that those Western Marxist and radical authors who have set about this task have come to rather vague and tentative conclusions. See, for example, Domhoff, G. W., Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), pp. 28ff.Google Scholar; Szymanski, , The Capitalist State and the Politics of Class, pp. 35–53Google Scholar; Westergaard, J. and Resler, H., Class in a Capitalist Society: A Study of Contemporary Britain (Harmondsworth, Middx.: Penguin, 1976), pp. 239–43.Google Scholar
50 Zorin, V. S., ‘Monopolii i politika Vashingtona’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1978, no. 8), p. 51Google Scholar. See Zorin, V. S., Monopolii i politika SShA (Moscow: Institut Mezhdunarodnykh Otnoshenii, 1960)Google Scholar and numerous subsequent works. Cf. Perlo, V., The Empire of High Finance (New York: International Publishers, 1957).Google Scholar
51 Sivachev, and Yazkov, , History of the USA since World War I, p. 379.Google Scholar
52 See the contributions to Yakovlev, N. N., ed., SShA: politicheskaya mysl' i istoriya (Moscow: Nauka, 1976)Google Scholar; Pechatnov, V. O., Demokraticheskaya partiya SShA: izbirateli i politika (Moscow: Nauka, 1980)Google Scholar; and articles in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologica by Pechatnov, (1974, no. 11; 1975, no. 3; 1978, no. 3)Google Scholar, Glagolev, (1974, no. 9; 1980, no. 7)Google Scholar and Manykin, (1978, No. 10).Google Scholar
53 Shimanovsky, V. V., ‘Liberaly i razryadka napryazhennosti’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1976, no. 1), p. 50Google Scholar. Cf. the essay by Wolfe and Sanders on the ‘Cold War Social Democrats’: Wolfe, A. and Sanders, J., ‘Resurgent Cold War Ideology: The Case of the Committee on the Present Danger’, in Fagen, R., ed., Capitalism and the State in US-Latin American Relations (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 41–75.Google Scholar
54 The Director of the USA Institute is one of the leading Soviet specialists on ideology and international relations. See Arbatov, G. A., The War of Ideas in Contemporary International Relations (Moscow: Progress, 1973)Google Scholar. For a survey of Soviet views of foreign policy making in the United States and of the part played by public opinion, see Schwartz, , Soviet Perceptions of the United States, pp. 61–88.Google Scholar
55 Popov, A. A., ‘Razryadka i amerikanskie profsoyuzy’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1976, no. 9), pp. 55–61Google Scholar. See, too, Popov, A. A., SShA: gosudarstvo i profsoyuzy (Moscow: Nauka, 1974)Google Scholar, and contributions to SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya by Geevsky, (1975, no. 10)Google Scholar and Chervonnaya, (1974, no. 7).Google Scholar
56 See the joint articles by Zamoshkin, and Mel, 'vil’ in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1977, no. 11; 1979, no. 11)Google Scholar, and in Voprosy filosofii (1976, no. 11)Google Scholar; the articles by Shestakov, in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1979, no. 2; 1980, no. 9)Google Scholar; by Ashin, and Midler, in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1977, no. 6)Google Scholar; by Volkova, in SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1979, no. 1)Google Scholar; by Kholodkovsky, in Mirovaya ekonomika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya (1979, no. 6).Google Scholar
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58 See the comments which Schlesinger, Arthur Jr., makes in The Imperial Presidency, pp. 296–7Google Scholar; also Polsby, N. W., Congress and the Presidency (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971), p. 2Google Scholar; Burns, , Presidential Government, pp. 81–4.Google Scholar
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62 Although Soviet observers do not, as a rule, discuss the dependence of presidents on urban votes. Cf. Polsby, , Congress and the Presidency, p. 109Google Scholar; Burns, , Presidential Government, pp. 276–94Google Scholar; Mayhew, D. R., ‘Congressional Elections’, in Peabody, R. L. and Polsby, N. W., eds, New Perspectives on the House of Representatives (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1977), pp. 26–43.Google Scholar
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66 See, for example, Semenov, V. S., ‘Nakoplenie politicheskikh znanii s 1949g.’, in Kerimov, D. A., ed., Politika mira i razvitie politicheskikh sistem (Moscow: Nauka, 1979), pp. 26–33Google Scholar; Kalensky, V. G., ‘Strukturno-funktsional'nyi analiz’, in Burlatsky, F. M. and Chirkin, V. E., eds, Politicheskie sistemy sovremennosti (Moscow: Nauka, 1978), pp. 79–86Google Scholar; Burlatsky, F. M., ‘Politicheskaya sistema obshchestva: ponyatie i elementy’Google Scholar, in Burlatsky, F. M. and Chirkin, V. E., eds, Politicheskie sistemy sovremennosti, pp. 5–53Google Scholar; and other works by Burlatsky. Soviet political systems theorists adopt what they describe as a Marxist, dialectical approach. They stress the need ‘to distinguish the main factors of change in the political system arising above all from the economy and class structure of society’. See Burlatsky, , ‘Politicheskaya sistema obshchestva: ponyatie i elementy’, p. 6.Google Scholar
67 Schwartz, , Soviet Perceptions of the United States, pp. 48–Google Scholar9. The author does comment on ‘renewed Soviet respect for Congress’ after 1974 (p. 57), but in general he is unduly sceptical about Soviet ability to comprehend the division of powers.
68 Burlatsky, , The Modern State and Politics, pp. 73–4Google Scholar. See, too, Peregudov, and Kholodkovsky, , ‘Uslozhnenie mekhanizma svyazi burzhuaznogo gosudarstva s gospodstvuyushchim klassom’, pp. 32–3.Google Scholar
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73 Zyablyuk, , SShA: Lobbizm i politika, p. 121.Google Scholar
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75 Yakovlev, N. N., ‘Vvedenie’, in Yakovlev, ed., SShA: politicheskii mysl' i istoriya, pp. 11–12Google Scholar. See too Semeiko, L. S., ‘Voenno-promyshlennyi kompleks, ego vliyanie’, SShA ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1976, no. 7), pp. 29–30Google Scholar; Zvolinsky, V. I., ‘Izmenenie obstanovki v kongresse SShA’, in Shershnev, E. S., ed., SSSR-SShA: ekonomicheskie otnosheniya (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), pp. 172–81Google Scholar; Zorin, V. S., ‘Monopolii i politika Vashingtona’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1978, no. 7), p. 33.Google Scholar
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80 Ashin, G. K., ‘Elitizm: amerikanskie varianty’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1975, no. 2), pp. 43–5Google Scholar; Zamoshkin, Yu. A. and Motroshilova, N., ‘“Tekhnistskoe soznanie” i ego evolyutsiya’, SShA: ekonomika, politika, ideologiya (1975, no. 6).Google Scholar
81 Franklyn Griffiths' ‘four images’ of American politics correspond in his interpretation to four tendencies in Soviet policy towards the United States in the 1950s and 1960s. Writers whom he places in the ‘fourth image’ (i.e. most innovative) class turn out to be extremely varied in their approach. In the 1970s diversity has increased still further. See Images, Politics and Learning, pp. 192–213.Google Scholar
82 Miliband, R., Marxism and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 15.Google Scholar
