The European Community (EC) sheep meat regime, introduced in 1980, was designed to resolve a conflict of interest between British and French sheep producers and originally sought to preserve the status quo, which included widely varying production systems, market prices and policy objectives. Although Britain's sole use of the variable premium focused discontent of other member states on its system of support, its production in the 1980s expanded continuously and its exports increased. However, the EC regime came under further pressure from the accession of Spain in 1986 and the inclusion of goats in the regime in 1985 added to budgetary problems. The cost of the regime has increased greatly and. this fact, together with the move towards a single market by 1992, meant that the fragmented market solution of 1980 could not last.

The agreement of July 1989 on a reform of the regime marked a major change. The transitional phase will see the phasing out of the special national provisions, including variable premium. Lower rates of premium for larger flocks, private storage aid, an EC standard quality and a differentiation between milk and meat producers will come into force in 1990 and 1991. By the end of 1992, a single premium will be applicable throughout the community and a single market will be in force.

This poses both challenges and opportunities for the British industry. Export markets will be more open. The variable premium, both a straight jacket and a safety net, will disappear and demands for price, quality and even supply will be more urgent. Traditional patterns of production will have to prove their efficiency. Options, such as more extensive/‘natural’ production, more intensive production, meat/wool dual production and organic production will need to be considered.

Throughout the 1980s the United Kingdom (UK) flock has expanded from 14 million to just over 20 million ewes and ewe lambs. This expansion has gone side by side with increased exports, particularly to France, and reduced New Zealand supplies. The main factor encouraging flock expansion has been European Community (EC) support and the guarantee created by the variable premium system adopted in the UK. As a result of the 'variable premium' payment system, supplies of lamb have increased during the first 3 months of the year but there is still a shortage of home produced lamb in the period April to June. Exports take up about 24% of the lamb crop.

There are 60 pure breeds of sheep in the UK and this number is actually increasing. The hill breeds are the most numerous. The national flock is dominated by halfbreds of which Mule types form 23% of the total. The Suffolk is the most numerous terminal sire but the number of Suffolk cross females has also increased substantially. Over 59% of the UK flock draws some form of hill subsidy.

Gross margin figures during the 1980s have been reasonable but in 1988 EC support and hill subsidies accounted for 30% of income in hill environments and 24% of income in lowland situations. In addition the ‘variable premium’ system underpinned the prices paid for store lambs. Changes in the EC sheepmeat regime are currently creating some uncertainty but prospects into the next century seem quite hopeful. The producer of store lambs will be vulnerable to an extent but there seems scope for continued modest expansion of the national flock through the 1990s.

This paper is a review of practical sheep breeding improvement schemes and techniques in the UK. Recent breed population changes in each of the broad categories of hill, longwool/crossing, longwool ewe, terminal sire and shortwool ewe breeds are outlined. Current or planned improvement programmes are reported for Welsh Mountain, Beulah, Scottish Blackface, Border Leicester, Cambridge, Friesland, Romney, Texel, Suffolk, Lleyn and Merino breeds. The techniques of genetic improvement currently available are discussed including some costs and likely genetic gains; techniques include group breeding schemes, artificial insemination, multiple ovulation and embryo transplant, best linear unbiased prediction and transgenic methods. The application of these techniques and contribution they could make to future sheep improvement are assessed.

Intravaginal progestagen pessaries + pregnant mare's serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) for controlling the oestrous cycle and for inducing out-of-season breeding have been commercially available for many years. However, extremely good mating management is required if acceptable results are to be achieved. More recently the role of the pineal hormone, melatonin, in the regulation of seasonal breeding has been recognized, and this has led to the development of slow-release formulations for use under farm conditions. Early indications are that such preparations can advance the breeding season by about 4 to 6 weeks, with lambing percentages in early (January) lambing flocks comparable with those of traditional (March) lambing flocks.

Recent developments in the use of laparoscopy as an aid to intrauterine insemination and multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET) should play a major role in breed improvement. Intrauterine insemination can markedly improve conception rates following the use of frozen semen compared with the conventional cervical technique, as well as eliminating the incidence of fertilization failure in embryo transfer donors. In addition, laparoscopic collection and transfer of embryos permit repeated collections from the same donor ewes and are much more acceptable than surgical techniques from the welfare point of view.

Lamb is perceived in an excellent manner in France, conjuring up the image of ‘feast day meat’, which is ‘natural’, mixed with a ‘regional flavour’. Historically lamb in France has been regarded as a meat for special occasions and has carried a high price tag. This price tag is less expensive than it used to be, especially with supermarkets and hypermarkets taking between 50 and 60% of the retail market. Lamb meat is now available to all at a (relatively) low price; a meat which is still regarded as ‘special’.

Lamb consumption is increasing in France; in 1988 by an estimated 4%. This is largely due to price, good marketing and very good presentation — in the supermarkets, by top quality high-street butchers and in older traditional country markets. Consumption of lamb has increased by approximately 85 000 t in the last 15 years. French production has been decreasing by about 4% per year over recent years, and France imported 63 500 t in 1984 of which 36 000 came from the United Kingdom (UK). In 1987, 108 200 t were imported, of which 60 000 t came from the UK.

There is a greater market potential for lamb in France than her producers can provide. One reason for this is that there are 190 000 producers with 8.15 million ewes; an average flock size of 42. This compares with the UK which has less than half the number of producers, with double the numbers of breeding sheep, and an average flock size nearly five times the size of French flocks.

From the long-term point of view, not only is a large number of the flocks too small to be viable in competition with UK producers in the European Community but a high proportion of flock owners tend to be elderly. Sheep production is taking place in areas which are difficult to farm and on small units which are difficult to expand, either because of land law restriction or through economic constraints.

Stocking rate is the major determinant of differences in profitability of recorded sheep flocks. Detailed guidelines, based on sward height profiles, for the management of continuously grazed sheep pastures were published in the mid 1980s. The key recommendation of these guidelines was maintenance of a sward height of about 6 cm from April to mid June. It arose from experimentation showing that, at this height, herbage intake by lactating ewes is nearly maximal, the level of herbage utilization was satisfactory and a good sward structure was achieved.

The paper reviews recent studies, which suggest modifications to the original management recommendations. Although concentrate supplementation of ewes in the spring, until the sward reached 4 cm, was recommended in the guidelines, there is little evidence of a response in lamb weight at weaning to supplementation unless swards are below 3 cm, which rarely occurs for long in lowland conditions. Decision rules for adjustment of the grazing area to achieve the height guidelines still present some problems, particularly in Scotland, where the growing season is short. An increase in sward height from 6 to 8 cm may be necessary from mid June to maintain high growth rates in lambs and prevent very low growth rates in weaned lambs. Rapid declines in sward height prior to mating may result in intakes below maintenance, which reduce lambing percentage, although this can be prevented by supplementation.

Mixed swards of white clover and grass with zero or low N fertilizer input give outputs of lamb production per ha that are 75 to 100% of the output from swards receiving high N fertilizer inputs. Guidelines for management of mixed swards are essentially the same as for pure grass swards.

Due to the wide variation in both the productivity of sheep systems and the quality of the food resources that they utilize, the formulation of successful feeding strategies for individual flocks during pregnancy and lactation is best achieved from a knowledge of how these physiological states affect food digestion and nutrient utilization. This paper reviews recent data on the principles of food digestion and nutrient utilization in the breeding ewe and translates them into practical feeding regimens that take account of forage quality, the amount and quality of the concentrate supplement and the contribution that body and dietary lipids can make to production.

In order to achieve maximum economic returns, the finished-lamb producer needs to plan his production system to meet the requirements of his chosen market. These requirements are now becoming more specific as consumer demands for a quality product increase and new markets (e.g. Europe) become available. With the diversity of genetic and environmental backgrounds of lambs destined for slaughter, together with the seasonality of breeding in sheep, it is not surprising that a range of finishing systems exists. This paper highlights recent developments in the nutrition of the finishing lamb and examines their potential.

In the early lambing flock, where fast growth rates are essential, lambs are often weaned when they are 4 to 6 weeks old. Similarly, in flocks lambing more than once per year, early weaning is necessary to allow the ewe to recover body condition before the next mating. Cereals are rich sources of energy and highly palatable to young lambs. Their rapid rate of fermentation in the rumen makes intensive finishing on cereal-based diets a relatively easy process, with growth rates of 350 to 400 g/day allowing lambs to reach slaughter weight at 12 to 14 weeks of age. To avoid the production of soft fat, which arises from high levels of propionic acid in the rumen, cereals should be offered as whole grains. Considerable benefits in terms of growth rate may be achieved by the inclusion of high quality protein sources of low rumen degradability, such as fish meal, in the diet.

The use of fodder crops grazed in situ for finishing store lambs has declined in recent years with the result that interest in indoor finishing systems has increased. These systems based on concentrate foods result in rapid growth rates. Alternatively, silage-based diets with appropriate supplements may be used to produce more modest growth rates, allowing lambs to be taken to heavier weights. Maintenance feeding during the store period has a major influence on the response of these lambs to improved nutrition, particularly to protein of low rumen degradability. Environmental limitations such as shortening daylength may also be an important consideration.

Lamb carcass quality is becoming increasingly important in market specifications and the ability of lambs to produce more lean and less fat has been demonstrated in experiments involving pharmacological manipulation. While these techniques may not be acceptable to the consumer, the potential to enhance carcass composition by dietary means clearly still exists.

Relative to other livestock sectors sheep production has a high wastage through mortality, suboptimal husbandry practices and premature culling. A significant but unquantified component of this loss is attributable to infectious and parasitic disease. Some common infectious diseases (e.g. those caused by Clostridia) are amenable to effective control but regular sporadic outbreaks indicate that, from time to time, control measures fail or are improperly applied. Other diseases, notably those causing abortion, continue to present problems, particularly chlamydial abortion and toxoplasmosis. Inability to diagnose infection before the onset of clinical signs hinders the control of scrapie and pulmonary adenomatosis (jaagsiekte) and the only vaccine against orf is of limited efficacy.

However, the new information being generated by application of molecular biological techniques in some of these problem areas carries promise of improved control. Good examples are provided by research which has led to a blood test for discriminating between sheep that are genetically susceptible or resistant to scrapie and by studies on Chlamydia psittaci which have identified essential protective antigens and which thereby improve prospects for significant vaccine enhancement.

The world-wide importance of gastrointestinal parasitism and the emergence of anthelmintic resistance have spurred efforts, internationally, to develop an alternative biological control system. Evidence that protective vaccination may be feasible is accruing but the time scale to a real product may be long.

Factors to be considered in assessing future disease trends include the impact of a ‘frontier-free’ Europe, changes in husbandry practices, introduction of new livestock species, altered land use and climatic change resulting from global warming. Some predictions are made.

The paper is based on problems found in a large ‘farm animal’ practice in Devon, in which the author is largely committed to the sheep work. There are some 80 000 sheep in the area, and some 1·5 million in the county of Devon which are kept under varying conditions from the high areas of Dartmoor to the very intensive flocks on permanent grass on heavy soils. A brief look is made at the effects of health research over the last 50 years in the context of present problems and/or barriers to future efficiency. Also present production problems are examined, in particular those relating to coccidiosis and ‘ill thrift’. The problems of the field application of modern technology are considered in the areas of: (1) manipulation of the breeding season, in an attempt to even out the production curve, using sponges, PMS and melatonin and teaser rams; (2) manipulation of prolificacy, using fecundin and prolific hybrids; and (3) genetic manipulation/improvement, using Meat and Livestock Commission backfat/eye muscle recording schemes, sire referencing, AI and MOET.

A scheme for the best utilization of veterinary surgeon/farmer relationship is outlined and mention is made as to the future direction of the industry as seen from the ‘sharp end’.

Lamb has some positive attributes so far as consumers are concerned i.e. high levels of tenderness and flavour, a low incidence of quality problems (such as PSE muscle in pigs) and a ‘natural’ image. However, a major reduction in fatness of the meat on display in supermarkets is seen as essential to maintain sales in the UK and increase them abroad. Analyses of lamb cuts on retail sale shows that insufficient trimming is or can be done to produce a lean product. An increase in carcass weight would allow more scope for new methods of butchery and presentation. Changes in the way that lamb is marketed are essential in order to reduce carcass fatness. More use of carcass classification and an objective scheme can provide the basis for grading which penalizes over-fat carcasses. Tenderness and flavour can both be modified by changes on the farm and in processing. Chilling rate and ageing/conditioning are major factors controlling tenderness and diet is important in producing desirable flavour. There is considerable scope for improving eating characteristics by ensuring that the factors which affect them are at appropriate levels. However, the major factor in increasing consumer appeal remains a reduction in the fat content of lamb.

There are three major markets for lamb — retail and catering domestic markets, and the export market. Most of the latter is within the European Community (EC) and as 1992 approaches the differences between the domestic and EC export markets will become less distinct. The basis of specifications for all of these markets, and sectors within them, is weight range, fatness and conformation. The majority of lamb is sold to the consumer (whether retail or catering) in a ‘bone-in’ form and weight range is therefore critical for many cuts, for example chops and leg joints, in determining either weight at sale (and price of pack) or portion size.

In the domestic market major multiple supermarkets are gaining market share at the expense of independent butchers. With their purchasing power they can and do impose increasingly tight and sophisticated specifications. All, for their majority of ‘bone-in’ cuts, specify a carcass weight range of 16 to 20 kg. It is estimated by the Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) that around 8% of lamb is now sold retail in a boneless form (boneless joints, lamb steaks, cubed lamb and minced lamb) and that this is a growing sector of the lamb market. Lamb is a small carcass unit (in comparison with beef and pork), has a high bone content and thus the cost of boning-out lamb carcasses is high. To reduce costs there is advantage in buying heavier lambs (but only if they are lean) and the premium specification for lambs for producing boneless cuts (and other forms of products) are increasingly in the range 20 to 24 kg.

Fatness continues to be the primary consumer negative about lamb. For ‘bone-in’ cuts it is difficult to trim, for boneless cuts extra trimming is possible but at the cost of reduced yields. There is a common specification for fatness in terms of MLC carcass classification — fat class 2 or 3L with increasing preference for the former. Conformation is the least important aspect of domestic market specifications. Nevertheless, for ‘bone-in’ cuts, particularly the important leg joint, shape is considered by many meat buyers as being important and most will be specifying carcasses of at least average shape, i.e. carcass class R. The export market is more complicated in terms of basic specifications. For the major market in northern and central France the specification is more or less identical to that of the major supermarkets in the domestic market. In south Europe requirement is for a much lighter lamb, 8 to 12 kg, very lean, fat class 1 and 2, and shape is almost irrelevant. Belgium and Germany require heavier lambs (18 to 22 kg) and this reflects usage in catering and processing.

There is growing interest in quality assurance schemes for lamb in the UK based on various carcass, slaughterhouse, storage and distribution factors.

Changes in eating patterns for reasons of cost, health or convenience, have resulted in reduced consumption of lamb. Carcass meat is being replaced by more processed, added value meat in the home, but novel lamb products have been difficult to develop due to small muscle size, hard fat and strong flavours. If value is to be added to lamb, texture and flavour of lamb and lamb products must be optimized. Whilst the use of electrical stimulation for beef carcasses, to avoid potential cold-induced toughening in modern chilling systems, is standard practice, little British lamb is stimulated in this way.

Restructuring can upgrade smaller or tougher and/or fatter parts of the carcass. It allows for regular portions of standard shape, size and composition, as in reformed hams, burgers, grillsteaks or sausages. The small size of the lamb carcass makes it expensive to bone and trim fat and connective tissue for the production of such products. This could be an increasing disadvantage if high quality, reformed, fresh products, using new binding technologies such as alginate or enzyme systems, gain a significant market share.

The ready meals market is expanding rapidly and although meat may not be the major component, it is usually the most expensive. These products may be fully sterile shelf-stable, cooked and frozen, or, more commonly, cooked and chilled with a shelf-life of a few days with carefully controlled refrigeration. Packaging has been highly developed for marketing these products. Unfortunately, traditional lamb products, such as moussaka and shepherds pie, are often now made from cheaper beef.

Larger lamb carcasses with lower fat, the use of mechanical bone removal or robotic butchery systems, innovative product or recipe design and the use of good packaging and presentation, would all aid in the development of lamb meat and meat product sales.