Hostname: page-component-77c89778f8-m42fx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-07-21T13:33:39.206Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Role Models and Moral Exemplars: How do Employees Acquire Virtues by Observing Others?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Dennis J. Moberg
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Role modeling is widely thought to be a principal vehicle for acquiring the virtues. Yet, little is known about role modeling as a process. This paper surveys the behavioral sciences for insights about how one person can find the actions of another person so inspirational that the person attempts to reproduce the behavior in question. In general, such inspiration occurs when an observer sees a model similar to herself, wrestling with a problem she is having, such that the model’s accomplishments are seen as attainable. When the behavior modeled is moral, additional complications arise, not the least of which is the contemporary skepticism about anyone held up as a hero. The paper concludes with some suggestions about how organizations can facilitate the development of the virtues through role modeling.

Type
Articles
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 10 , Issue 3 , July 2000 , pp. 675 - 696
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amelio, G. 1998. From the firing line: My 500 days at Apple. New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Argyris, C. 1976. Single-loop and double-loop models in research on decision-making. Administrative Science Quarterly 21: 363–375.Google Scholar
Bader, J. L. 1998 [1994]. Larger than life. In American Voices: Culture and Community, ed. la Guardia, D., and Guth, H. P., pp. 432–441. Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield Publishing.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. 1991. Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, vol. 1, ed. Kurtines, and Gewirtz, , pp. 45–103. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Bandura, A.; Adams, N. E.; and Beyer, J. 1977. Cognitive processes mediating behavioral change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 35: 125–139.Google Scholar
Bandura, A.; Reese, L.; and Adams, N. E. 1982. Microanalysis of action and fear arousal as a function of differential levels of self-efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43: 5–21.Google Scholar
Bandura, A. and Wood, R. E. 1989. Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56: 805–816.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. and Avolio, B. 1985. Charisma and beyond. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, San Diego.Google Scholar
Berger, S. M. 1971. Observer perseverance as related to a model’s success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 19: 341–350.Google Scholar
Berger, S. M. 1977. Social comparison, modeling, and perseverance. In Social Comparison Processes, ed. Suls, J. M. and Miller, R. L., pp. 209–234. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing.Google Scholar
Berger, S. M., and Johannson, S. L. 1968. Effect of a model’s expressed emotions on an observer’s resistance to extinction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 10: 53–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, M. B. and Gardner, W. 1996. Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71: 83–93.Google Scholar
Brickman, P. and Bulman, R. J. 1977. Pleasure and pain in social interaction. In Social Comparison Processes, ed. Suls, J. M. and Miller, R. L., pp. 149–186. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing.Google Scholar
Bryan, J. H. and Walbek, N. H. 1970a. Preaching and practicing self-sacrifice: Children’s actions and reactions. Child Development 41: 329–353.Google Scholar
Bryan, J. H. and Walbek, N. H. 1970b. The impact of words and deeds concerning altruism upon children. Child Development 41: 747–757.Google Scholar
Cash, T. F.; Cash, D. W.; and Butters, J. W. 1983. “Mirror, mirror on the wall …?”: Contrast effects and self-evaluations of physical attractiveness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 9: 351–358.Google Scholar
Cavanagh, G. and Moberg, D. J. 1998. Organizational courage. Paper presented the annual meeting of the Society for Business Ethics, San Diego, August.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B.; Borden, R. J.; Thorne, A.; Walker, M. R.; Freeman, S.; and Sloan, L. R. 1976. Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34: 366–375.Google Scholar
Coleman, J. C. and Hendry, L. B. 1990. The nature of adolescence. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Daloz, L. A. 1986. Effective teaching and mentoring. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Dunn, L. 1991. Teaching the heroes of American history: Debunking the myths, keeping the heroes. The Social Studies 82: 26–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earley, P. C. and Kanfer, R. 1985. The influence of component participation and role models on goal acceptance, goal satisfaction, and performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 36: 378–390.Google Scholar
Flanders, J. P. 1968. A review of research on imitative behavior. Psychological Bulletin 69: 316–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gastorf, J. W.; Suls, J.; and Sanders, G. S. 1980. Type A coronary-prone behavior pattern and social facilitation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38: 773–780.Google Scholar
Gist, M. E.; Schwoerer, C.; and Rosen, B. 1989. Effects of alternative training methods on self-efficacy and performance in computer software training. Journal of Applied Psychology 74: 884–892.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goethals, G. R. and Darley, J. M. 1977. Social comparison theory. In Social Comparison Processes: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives, ed. Suls, J. M. and Miller, R. L., pp. 259–278. Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere.Google Scholar
Goethals, G. R. and Nelson, R. E. 1973. Similarity in the influence process: The belief-value distinction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 25: 117–122.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. 1990. Looking fair vs. being fair: Managing impressions of organizational justice. In Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 12, ed. Staw, B. M. and Cummings, L. L., pp. 111–157. San Francisco: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Grusec, J.; Kuczynski, L.; Rushton, J. P.; and Simutis, Z. 1979. Learning resistance to temptation through observation. Developmental Psychology 15: 233–240.Google Scholar
Grusec, J. and Skubiski, S. L. 1970. Model nurturance, demand characteristics of the modeling experiment, and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 14: 352–359.Google Scholar
Hanson, R. D. 1980. Common sense attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39: 996–1009.Google Scholar
Hendry, L. B.; Roberts, W.; Glendinning, A.; and Coleman, J. C. 1992. Adolescents’ perceptions of significant individuals in their lives. Journal of Adolescence 15: 255–270.Google Scholar
Hildesbrandt, D. E.; Feldman, S. E.; and Ditrichs, R. A. 1973. Rules, models, and self-reinforcement in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 25: 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoag, M. A. and Hardie, E. A. 1991. Social attraction, personal attraction, and self-categorization: A field study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17: 175–180.Google Scholar
Horvath, C. M. 1995. MacIntyre’s critique of business. Business Ethics Quarterly 5: 499–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jablin, F. M. 1987. Organizational entry, assimilation, and exit. In Handbook of organizational communication: An interdisciplinary perspective, ed. Jablin, et al., pp. 679–737. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage.Google Scholar
Javidan, M.; Bemmels, B.; Devine, K. S.; and Dastmalchian, A. 1995. Superior and subordinate gender and the acceptance of superiors as role models. Human Relations 48: 1271–1284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, T. M. and Ryan, L. V. 1997. The link between ethical judgment and action in organizations. Organization Science 8: 663–680.Google Scholar
Katz, R. 1980. Time and work: Toward an integrative perspective. In Research in organizational behavior, vol. 2, ed. Staw, and Cummings, , pp. 81–128. San Francisco: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Kivnick, H. Q. and Jernstedt, H. L. 1996. Mama still sparkles: An elder role model in long-term care. Marriage and Family Review 24: 123–164.Google Scholar
Kliebhan, . 1967. Effects of goal-setting and modeling on job performance of retarded adolescents. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 72: 220–226.Google Scholar
Koehn, D. 1995. A role for virtue ethics in the analysis of business. Business Ethics Quarterly 5: 533–540.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1976. Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-development approach. In Moral Development and Behavior, ed. Lickona, , pp. 31–53. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Kram, K. E. 1985. Mentoring at work: Developmental relationships in organizational life. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman.Google Scholar
Lipscomb, T. J.; Larrieu, J. A.; McAllister, H. A.; and Bregman, N. J. 1982. Modeling and children’s generosity: A developmental perspective. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 28: 275–282.Google Scholar
Lockwood, P. and Kunda, Z. 1997. Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73: 91–103.Google Scholar
Malgady, R. G.; Rogler, L. H.; and Costantino, G. 1990. Hero/heroine for Puerto Rican adolescents: A preventive mental health intervention. Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology 58: 469–474.Google Scholar
Manz, C. C. and Sims, H. P. Jr. 1981. Vicarious learning: The influence of modeling on organizational behavior. Academy of Management Review 6: 105–113.Google Scholar
Markus, H. and Nurius, P. 1986. Possible selves. American Psychologist 41: 954–969.Google Scholar
Matthews, K. A. and Siegel, J. M. 1983. Type A behaviors by children: Social comparison and standards for self-evaluation. Developmental Psychology 19: 135–140.Google Scholar
Meichenbaum, D. H. 1971. Examination of model characteristics in reducing avoidance behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 17: 298–307.Google Scholar
McCraken, J. and Shaw, B. 1995. Virtue ethics and contractarianism. Business Ethics Quarterly 5: 297–312.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMains, M. J. and Liebert, R. M. 1968. Influence of discrepancies between successively model self-reward criteria on the adoption of a self-imposed standard. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8: 166–171.Google Scholar
Miller, D. T.; Turnbull, W.; and McFarland, C. 1988. Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55: 908–917.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1997a. Virtuous peers in work organizations. Business Ethics Quarterly 7: 67–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1997b. On employee vice. Business Ethics Quarterly 7: 41–60.Google Scholar
Moberg, D. J. 1999. The big five and organizational virtue. Business Ethics Quarterly 9: 245–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morse, S. and Gergen, K. J. 1970. Social comparisons, self-consistency, and the concept of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 16: 148–156.Google Scholar
Organ, D. W. 1988. Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Pascale, R. 1984. Fitting new employees into the company culture. Fortune 109: 28–40.Google Scholar
Paulus, P. B. and Seta, J. J. 1975. The vicarious partial reinforcement effect: An empirical test and theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31: 930–936.Google Scholar
Pelham, B. W. and Wachsmuth, J. O. 1995. The waxing and waning of the social self: Assimilation and contrast in social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69: 825–838.Google Scholar
Peters, T. J. 1978. Symbols, patterns, and settings: An optimistic case for getting things done. Organizational Dynamics 7: 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfeffer, J. 1981. Management as symbolic action: The creation and maintenance of organizational paradigms. In Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 3, ed. Staw, and Cummings, , pp. 1–52. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Presbie, R. J. and Coiteux, P. F. 1971. Learning to be generous or stingy: Imitation of sharing behaviors as a function of model generosity and vicarious reinforcement. Child Development 42: 1033–1038.Google Scholar
Rakestraw, T. L. and Weiss, H. M. 1981. The interaction of social influences and task experience on goals, performance, and satisfaction. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 27: 326–344.Google Scholar
Rice, M. E. and Grusec, J. 1975. Saying and doing: Effects on observer performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32: 584–593.Google Scholar
Rosenhan, D. L. and White, G. M. 1967. Observation and rehearsal as determinants of pro-social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5: 424–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P. and Owens, D. 1975. Immediate and delayed effects of TV modeling and preaching on children’s generosity. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 14: 309–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartre, J-P. 1948. Existentialism and humanism, trans. Mairet, P.London: Methuen and Co.Google Scholar
Seta, F. 1982. The impact of comparison processes on coactors’ task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42: 281–291.Google Scholar
Shunk, D. H. and Hanson, A. R. 1985. Peer models: Influence on children’s self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 77: 313–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, E. R. and Henry, S. 1996. An in-group becomes part of the self: Response time evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22: 635–642.Google Scholar
Solomon, R. C. 1992. Ethics and excellence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E. and Lobel, M. 1989. Social comparison activity under threat: Downward evaluation and upward contacts. Psychological Review 96: 569–575.Google Scholar
Trevino, L. K. and Weaver, G. R. 1996. Barriers to and facilitators of moral perceptions: The case of competitive intelligence practitioners. Paper presented at the annual Academy of Management meetings, August, Cincinnati.Google Scholar
Trevino, L. K. and Youngblood, S. A. 1990. Bad apples in bad barrels: A causal analysis of ethical decision-making behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology 75: 378–385.Google Scholar
Wang, A. Y. 1994. Pride and prejudice in high school gang members. Adolescence 29: 279–291.Google ScholarPubMed
Warren, R. P. 1972. A dearth of heroes. American Heritage 23: 4–7, 95–99.Google Scholar
Weiss, H. 1990. Learning and industrial/organizational psychology. In The Handbook of Industrial/Organizational Psychology, 2d ed., ed. Dunnett, M. D.Palo Alto, Calif.: Consulting Psychologists.Google Scholar
Werhane, P. H. 1994. Moral imagination and the search for ethical decision-making in management. In The Ruffin Lectures in Business Ethics. Charlottesville: Darden School, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Wheeler, L. 1966a. Motivation as a determinant of upward comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Supplement 1: 27–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, L. 1966b. Toward a theory of behavioral contagion. Psychological Review 73: 173–192.Google Scholar
White, G. M. 1972. Immediate and deferred effects of model observation and guided and unguided rehearsal on donating and stealing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21: 139–148.Google Scholar
Wicks, A. C. 1997. On MacIntyre, modernity, and the virtues: A response to Dobson. Business Ethics Quarterly 7: 133–136.Google Scholar
Wood, J. V. 1989. Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin 106: 231–246.Google Scholar
Wood, R. E. and Bandura, A. 1989. Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56: 407–416.Google Scholar
Wright, J. P. 1979. On a clear day you can see General Motors. Grosse Pointe, Mich.: Wright Enterprise.Google Scholar
Yukl, G. A. and Van Fleet, D. 1982. Cross-situational, multi-method research on military leadership. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 30: 87–108.Google Scholar
Zastowny, T. R.; Kirschenbaum, D. S.; and Meng, A. I. 1986. Coping skills training for children: Effects on distress before, during, and after hospitalization for surgery. Health Psychology 5: 231–247.Google Scholar