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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 December 2011
For the clerks who worked in British life-insurance companies during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, occupational mobility was both an opportunity that motivated effort and a generator of wide disparities in pay and status. Ambitious clerks learned math in the hope of becoming actuaries. By the end of the nineteenth century, this pattern had changed, owing to the rise of branch networks and accompanying bottle-necks in the promotion process. Insurance companies tried to divert clerks’ ambition by offering them opportunities to engage in sports and other leisure activities, and by enhancing their financial security through staff pension schemes. Although these strategies only succeeded in retaining around half of all entering clerks for more than a few years, the activities added meaning to the lives of those clerks who stayed on and made vital contributions to the rapid growth of one of Britain's most important financial services.
1 Standard Life, private minutes, 31 Mar. 1848, 2 and 30 Aug. 1854,18 Nov. 1874, A1/3/1-2,5, The Standard Life Assurance Company archives, Edinburgh (henceforth SL); Moss, Michael, Standard Life 1825-2000: The Building of Europe's Largest Mutual Life Company (Edinburgh, 2000), 37–41Google Scholar.
2 “Insurance as a Profession,” Bankers’ Magazine 55 (1893): 808Google Scholar; Supple, Barry, The Royal Exchange Assurance: A History of British Insurance, 1720-1970 (Cambridge, U.K., 1970), 375Google Scholar. This figure includes composite insurance companies, but excludes working-class “industrial” life offices and friendly societies.
3 Between 1870 and 1914, sums insured in Britain tripled, from €293 million to €870 million; this accounted for €29 million in premium income in 1914: Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 285, 220.
4 Only six British life offices in existence after 1800 formed before 1790 (the Amicable, Royal Exchange, Equitable, Sun, Union, and London Assurance), and the latter three sold only fire and marine insurance up to 1809.
5 Equitable Life directors’ report, 1825, cited in Ogborn, Maurice Edward, Equitable Assurances: The Story of Life Assurance in the Experience of the Equitable Life Assurance Society, 1762-1962 (London, 1962), 183Google Scholar. For nineteenth-century American examples of this form of marketing, see Murphy, Sharon Ann, “Security in an Uncertain World: Life Insurance and the Emergence of Modern America” (Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 2005), 270–73Google Scholar.
6 Morris, R. J., “Family Strategies and the Built Environment of Leeds in the 1830s and 1840s,” Northern History 37 (2000): 200–3, 213CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Among Atlas policyholders between 1845 and 1852, the average clerk purchased €394 in coverage, compared with an overall average of €691: Atlas Assurance Company Life Department minute books, 16,171/1-4, Guildhall Library, London (henceforth GL).
7 Many of the best sources for insurance clerks do not distinguish the departments clerks worked for, and, in many cases, the forms of activity or company policies similarly lumped all clerks together. As discussed below, the fact that life clerks would become a minority in all but specialist life offices by the end of the nineteenth century had an important impact on their work experience.
8 The two most recent histories of Anglo-American insurance that cover the period up to 1870 only mention clerks in passing: see Pearson, Robin, Insuring the Industrial Revolution: Fire Insurance in Great Britain, 1700-1850 (Aldershot, U.K., 2004)Google Scholar; and Murphy, “Security in an Uncertain World.”
9 Anderson, Gregory, Victorian Clerks (Manchester, 1976)Google Scholar; Davies, Margery, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia, 1982), ch. 2Google Scholar.
10 See Yates, JoAnne, Control through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore, 1989)Google Scholar; Kwolek-Folland, Angel, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, 1994)Google Scholar; Zunz, Olivier, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago, 1990)Google Scholar. See also Davies, Women's Place; Bjelopera, Jerome P., City of Clerks: Office and Sales Workers in Philadelphia, 1870-1920 (Urbana, Ill., 2005)Google Scholar; and, on Britain, Anderson, Gregory, ed., The White-blouse Revolution: Female Office Workers since 1870 (Manchester, 1988)Google Scholar.
11 Augst, Thomas, The Clerk's Tale: Young Men and Moral Life in Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago, 2003)Google Scholar; Wild, Jonathan, The Rise of the Office Clerk in Literary Culture, 1880-1939 (Basingstoke, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
12 Augst, The Clerk's Tale, 262.
13 Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, Clerical Medical archives, HBOS pic Group Archives, Edinburgh (henceforth CM); Eagle Insurance Company board minutes, 13 Aug. 1858, EA 1/5/13, Zurich Financial Services (henceforth ZFS); Edinburgh Life Assurance Company board minutes, 4 Dec. 1856, CU 2733, Aviva Group archives, Norwich (henceforth AG); Economic Life Assurance Society board minutes, 22 Dec. 1848, 14,065/4, GL; Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 376; Alliance Assurance Company board minutes, 2 May 1827, 12,162/1, GL.
14 Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 376; Martin Campbell-Kelly, “Large-scale Data Processing in the Prudential, 1850-1930,” Accounting, Business and Financial History 2, no. 2 (1992): 122, 125, 130; Assurance Agents’ Review 19 (1906): 163.
15 Post Magazine Almanack, 1870 (appended advertisements) and 1900 (54-66). For a contemporary assessment of life-insurance branch networks, see Browne, E. C., Life Agencies: Thoughts and Suggestions Concerning Their Economic and Efficient Arrangement (London, 1878)Google Scholar.
16 Alliance board minutes, 15 Jan. 1879, 2 Mar. 1892, 12,162/11, 15, GL; Yorkshire Fire & Life Insurance Company branch staff salaries and administration register, GA 2707, AG.
17 Legal & Genera] Life Assurance Society board minutes, 29 Nov. 1836 and 30 Apr. 1839 33,437/1-2, GL; English & Scottish Law Life Assurance Association board minutes, 17 Mar. 1882, ESL1/5/1/1/10, ZFS.
18 Law Union Fire & Life Insurance Company report book, 2 Feb. 1858, 21,262, GL; “Insurance as a Profession,” 809-10.
19 English & Scottish Law board minutes, 3 Dec. 1886, ESL1/5/1/1/11, ZFS; Economic board minutes, 10 June 1836,14,065/2, GL); Post Magazine (henceforth PM) 40 (1879): 416, 435.
20 London Times, 1 Dec. 1841. On bank clerks, see Boot, H. M., “Salaries and Career Earnings in the Bank of Scotland, 1730-1880,” Economic History Review 44, no. 4 (1991): 629–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on other clerical wages, see Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 15-16, 20-21, 25.
21 Atlas board minutes, 7 Mar. 1809, 16,170/1, GL; Alliance board minutes, 2 May 1827, 12,162/1, GL; Standard Life private minutes, 22 Sept. 1853, A1/3/2, SL; Caledonian Insurance Company board minutes, 13 Nov. 1878,16,184/7, GL.
22 National Provident Institution salary returns, 20,293, GL; Provident Life Institution, notes on the company's history, 103, 14,311 GL; Clerical Medical board minutes, vol. 22, 4 Aug. 1875, Acc.2006/063, CM.
23 Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, CM.
24 Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 319, 379; H. M. Boot, “Real Incomes of the British Middle Class, 1760-1850: The Experience of Clerks at the East India Company,” Economic History Review 52, no. 4 (1999): 654; Standard Life, private minutes, 12 Nov. 1872, A1/3/5, SL.
25 Royal Farmers & General Fire & Life Insurance Company board minutes, 4 Apr. 1865, 14,989/17, GL; Alliance board minutes, 11 June 1862, 12,162/7, GL; Atlas board minutes, 5 May 1843,16,170/7, GL.
26 Blake, Robert, Esto Perpetua: Norwich Union Life Insurance Society, 1808-1958 (Norwich, 1958), 72Google Scholar; Provident Life notes, 103, 14,311, GL; National Mutual Life Assurance Society head office salaries, Dec. 1911, 34,562/1, GL.
27 See, for example, Legal & General board minutes, 24 Apr. 1877, 33,437/25, GL; English & Scottish Law board minutes, ESL1/5/1/1/5-12 passim, ZFS; Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, CM.
28 Yates, Control through Communication, 25-63; Leigh-Bennett, E. P., On This Evidence: A Study of the Legal and General Life Assurance Society since its Formation in 1836 (London, 1937), 98Google Scholar; Price, Leah, “Stenographic Masculinity,” in Literary Secretaries/Secretarial Culture, eds. Price, Leah and Thurschwell, Pamela (Burlington, 2005)Google Scholar; Warwick, Andrew, Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics (Chicago, 2003), 328–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
29 Dennett, Laurie, A Sense of Security: One Hundred Fifty Years of Prudential (Cambridge, 1998), 115–16Google Scholar; Campbell-Kelly, “Large-scale Data Processing,” 122-29.
30 PM 55 (1894): 465; Norwich Union Magazine 7 (1897): 21.
31 Turnbull, A. D. Lindsay, “Some Suggestions in Regard to Life Office Accounting,” Transactions of the Actuarial Society of Edinburgh 4 (1898): 228Google Scholar; Journal of the Institute of Actu-aries (henceforth JIA) 66 (1935): 158Google Scholar.
32 Moss, Standard Life, 153; Standard Life reports and valuations, 539, A3/3/2, SL; Standard Newsletter, Sept. 1922, 10.
33 Dennett, A Sense of Security, 82; Ellen Jordan, “The Lady Clerks at the Prudential: The Beginning of Vertical Segregation by Sex in Clerical Work in Nineteenth-Century Britain,” Gender and History 8, no. 1 (1996), 65.
34 Clegg, Cyril, Friend in Deed: The History of… the Refuge Assurance Company Limited (London, 1958), 72–73Google Scholar; Susanne Dohrn, “Pioneers in a Dead-end Profession: The First Women Clerks in Banks and Insurance Companies,” in White-blouse Revolution, ed. Anderson, 57; PM 55 (1894): 465; Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 395; Trebilcock, Clive, Phoenix Assurance and the Development of British Insurance, 2 vols. (Cambridge, U.K., 1985, 1999), 2: 104Google Scholar; Tregoning, David and Cockerell, Hugh, Friends for Life: Friends’ Provident Life Office, 1832-1982 (London, 1982), 36Google Scholar.
35 Clegg, Friend in Deed, 72-73; Dohrn, “Pioneers in a Dead-end Profession,” 57-58, 60; Dennett, A Sense of Security, 83, 103; Jordan, “Lady Clerks,” 78. Parallel forms of gender segregation emerged in American insurance companies: see Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business, 112-28.
36 Trebilcock, Phoenix Assurance, 2: 104; Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 396; National Mutual head-office salaries, Dec. 1913, 34,562/1, GL; Yorkshire branch staff salaries, GA 2707, AG.
37 George, and Grossmith, Weedon, The Diary of a Nobody (1892; Oxford, 1995), 98Google Scholar; Eagle board minutes, 12 Jan. 1894, EA 1/5/23, ZFS; Rock Life Assurance Company, Centenary 1806-1906 (London, 1906), 18Google Scholar. For pre-1850 examples of actuaries or secretaries residing in the office, see Conder, William S., The Story of the London Life Association Limited (London, 1979), 129Google Scholar; Besant, Arthur Digby, Our Centenary: Being the History of the First Hundred Years of the Clerical, Medical & General Life Assurance Society (London, 1924), 20Google Scholar.
38 Average age of appointment age is taken from Edinburgh Life staff notebook, CU 2567, AG; Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, CM; National Provident salary returns, 20,293, GL; Legal & General staff register, 36,299/1, GL.
39 Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, CM.
40 PM 46 (1885): 236; Norwich Union Magazine 11 (1892): 3; Insurance Record (henceforth IR) 39 (1901): 71-73; Conder, Story of the London Life, 224. On women's roles, see, for example, IR 41 (1903): 376; 39 (1901): 71-73; Besant, Our Centenary, 145.
41 Alliance board minutes, 9 May 1860, 1 Mar. 1865,12,162/6, GL; Church of England Fire & Life Assurance Society board minutes, 24 Dec. 1857,17 June 1858,5 Mar. 1862,12,160D/4, GL;PM44 (1893): 126,136.
42 Walford, C., The Insurance Cyclopaedia (London, 1871-1880), 1: 514Google Scholar; 2: 398; IR 38 (1900): 603.
43 Lindsay, Maurice, Count All Men Mortal: A History of Scottish Provident, 1837-1987 (Edinburgh, 1987), 120Google Scholar; Bankers’ Magazine 49 (1888): 798Google Scholar; PM 54 (1893): 346Google Scholar; Champness, Arthur, A Century of Progress (London, 1937), 52Google Scholar; Blake, Esto Perpetua, 28; Walford, , Insurance Cyclopaedia, 1: 261–62Google Scholar; Provident Life notes, 143, 14,311, GL; Yorkshire board minutes, 27 May 1891, GA 1231, AG.
44 Clerical Medical board minutes, vol. 1, 5 Oct. 1825, SH14, CM; Atlas board minutes, 30 June 1808,16,170/1, GL.
45 Rock Life Assurance Company board minutes, 3 June 1813, 21,208/2, GL; Guardian Insurance Company board minutes, Feb. 1867 and 21 Feb. 1868, 14,281/11, GL; Law Union committee reports, 6 Feb. 1889, 21,263, GL; Atlas board minutes, 16 Nov. 1809 and 7 Mar. 1811,16,170/1, GL.
46 See, for example, Lindsay, Count All Men Mortal, 71; Tregoning and Cockerill, Friends for Life, 169; PM 49 (1888): 576, 854.
47 Rock, Centenary, 18; Digby Besant to George King, 22 Mar. 1909; Besant to G. S. Crisford, 11 Apr. 1910, Clerical Medical actuary's private letter book, E21, Acc.2005/022, CM; “Particulars to be Furnished by a Candidate for a Clerkship,” c. 1915, Acc.2006/022, box LD063, CM.
48 See, for example, Lindsay, Count All Men Mortal, 61-62; Standard Life private minutes, 30 Nov. and 11 Dec. 1846, A1/3/1, SL.
49 Comparison of the Emoluments of Persons in Permanent Employment of Government with those of Persons in the Employment of Joint Stock Companies (London, 1850), 50Google Scholar.
50 Anderson, Victorian Clerks, 41-49.
51 The only striking examples of entrepreneurial life-insurance clerks were the many embezzlers who made their presence felt: see Ogborn, Equitable Assurances, 153-54, and Robb, George, White-Collar Crime in Modern England: Financial Fraud and Business Morality, 1845-1929 (Cambridge, U.K., 1992), 11–30, 125-36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
52 Based on biographical information from the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, Post Magazine, Walford's Cyclopaedia, and company histories and archival sources cited herein relating to 195 British actuaries appointed between 1800 and 1914.
53 Alliance board minutes, 24 Jan. 1866, 12,162/8, GL; Sandau, Andrew Van, An Exposition of the Author's Experience as One of the Assured in the ‘Alliance’ British & Foreign Life & Fire Assurance Company (London, 1856), 12–18Google Scholar; PM52 (1891): 610; Warner, S. G., “Opening Address by the President,” JIA 51 (1918): 22Google Scholar.
54 PM 43 (1882): 476, 484; 46 (1885): 82; 56 (1895): 182, 307; Royal Insurance Company, 1845-1895: A Brief Sketch of its Organization, Progress, and Present Position (Liverpool, 1895), 14Google Scholar; JIA 26 (1886): 158Google Scholar; Walford, , Insurance Cyclopaedia, 2: 154Google Scholar; IR 38 (1900): 394.Google Scholar
55 Royal Farmers board reports, 4 July 1872, 24 Mar. 1874, May 1879, and May 1884, 14,991, GL. On “personalized promotion” in American life offices during this time, see Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business, 26-27.
56 Simmonds, Reginald Claude, The Institute of Actuaries, 1848-1948: An Account of the Institute of Actuaries during its First One Hundred Years (Cambridge, 1948), 215–22Google Scholar; Council minutes, 7 Oct. 1856, 4/1/4/1, Faculty of Actuaries archives, Edinburgh (henceforth FA); Millerson, Geoffrey, The Qualifying Associations: A Study in Professionalization (London, 1964), 123.Google Scholar
57 IR 4 (1866): 205 and 7 (1869): 424; Council minutes, July 1893, 4/1/4/2, FA.
58 Council minutes, 30 Dec. 1858, 4/1/4/1, FA; Davidson, Andrew Rutherford, The History of the Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland, 1856-1956 (Edinburgh, 1956), 64Google Scholar; Simmonds, Institute of Actuaries, 224, 227-28; JIA 24 (1883): 148Google Scholar.
59 IR 3 (1865): 14; Council minutes, Dec. 1854, MBK 958, Institute of Actuaries archives, London.
60 JIA 33 (1897): 437 and 26 (1887): 223; Actuarial Society of Edinburgh minutes, paper by David Chisholm, 7 Feb. 1861, 5/1/1/1, FA. On Cambridge pedagogy, see Warwick, Masters of Theory, 38, 56, 153, 202, 284; Wise, M. Norton, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, 1995), 227Google Scholar.
61 JIA 57 (1926): 343; Porter, Theodore M., Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995), 7Google Scholar. On Tripos coaches, see Warwick, Masters of Theory, 248, 518.
62 Newbatt, Benjamin, “Opening Address by the President,” JIA 29 (1891): 7Google Scholar; JIA 64 (1933): 548Google Scholar; Cockburn, Henry, “Opening Address by the President,” JIA 39 (1905): 16Google Scholar.
63 Council minutes, 16 Oct. 1896,4/1/4/3, FA; Actuarial Society of Edinburgh minutes, 22 June 1874 and various pages, 5/1/1/1, FA.
64 Edinburgh Life board minutes, 4 Dec. 1856, CU 2733,19 June 1878, CU 2742, AG; Clerical Medical salary books, Ace.2005/022, CM.
65 IR 7 (1869): 42; Besant, Our Centenary, 204.
66 PM 68 (1907): 732, 747. For examples of such cases, see Minnitt, Jack, The Sun Life Story, 1810-1985 (Bristol, 1985), 39–40Google Scholar; Schooling, William, Alliance Assurance, 1824-1924 (London, 1924), 29Google Scholar; PM 50 (1889): 318Google Scholar and 52 (1891): 89; Policy-holder 2 (1884): 62Google Scholar.
67 Economist, 3 Dec. 1910.
68 Cockerell, Hugh A. L., Sixty Years of the Chartered Insurance Institute, 1897-1957 (London, 1957)Google Scholar.
69 Journal of the Federated Insurance Institutes 4 (1901): xviiiGoogle Scholar (speech by David Laidlaw); “Insurance as a Profession,” 818. For fire-related insurance institute field trips and lectures, see PM 48 (1887): 115Google Scholar and 51 (1890): 787; Report of the Insurance Association of Manchester, tables of contents (1895-1901); Policy-holder 1 (1883): 214Google Scholar.
70 Dictionary of National Biography, entries on Rathbone and Richardson.
71 Clerical Medical salary books, Acc.2005/022, CM; Edinburgh Life staff notebook, CU 2567, AG.
72 Schooling, Frederick, “Opening Address by the President,” JIA 47 (1913): 18Google Scholar; Hendriks, Augustus, “Opening Address by the President,” JIA 30 (1893): 291Google Scholar.
73 Holcombe, Victorian Ladies at Work, 150-51; Jordan, “Lady Clerks,” 66; Yorkshire branch staff salaries, GA 2707, AG.
74 Supple, Royal Exchange Assurance, 388-89; Alliance board minutes, 9 Feb. 1881, 12,162/12, GL; PM 54 (1893): 107 and 42 (1881): 267; Yorkshire board minutes, 29 Feb. 1888, GA 1228, AG.
75 PM 54 (1893): 107.
76 Lowerson, John, Sport and the English Middle Classes, 1870-1914 (Manchester, 1993)Google Scholar.
77 Bjelopera, City of Clerks, 88-103 (quotation on p. 100).
78 Prudential Literary Society minute book, 31 Dec. 1898, Prudential Clerks Society minute books, various pages; Ibis Music Society minute book, 2 July 1891, Prudential pic archives, London; Ibis 13 (1890): 103,187; Dennett, A Sense of Security, 87,155-58, 388; Tom Watson, Ibis Cricket, 1870-1949 (London, 1949), 62; Ibis 1 (1878): 34.
79 PM 49 (1888): 213Google Scholar; 53 (1892): 371; 55 (1894): 60; Assurance Agents’ Review 6 (1893): 87Google Scholar; IR 40 (1902): 27Google Scholar; Pearl Assurance: An Illustrated History (Peterborough, 1990), 153–54Google Scholar.
80 PM 49: 74 (Phoenix); Norwich Union Magazine 11 (1901): 42; Law Union & Crown Athletic Club minutes, 21,275 GL; PM 66 (1905): 487; REA Magazine 3 (1910): 123; Athletic Record and Billiard Chronicle, ms. 15/4, Scottish Amicable Insurance Company archives, Stirling.
81 Alliance board minutes, 12 Mar. 1884, 12,162/12, GL; PM 54 (1893): 124Google Scholar; 55 (1894): 625; 66 (1905): 469; 67 (1906): 70; Fifty Swimming Years: An Historical Survey of the Insurance Offices Amateur Swimming Association (London, 1964)Google Scholar.
82 Birmingham Insurance Institute, Golden Jubilee Year, 1937 (Birmingham, 1937)Google Scholar; PM 52 (1891): 517Google Scholar; 48 (1887): 124; 50 (1889): 635.
83 Robinson, Fred Miller, The Man in the Bowler Hat: His History and Iconography (Chapel Hill, 1993), 34Google Scholar.
84 PM 46 (1885): 593Google Scholar; 50 (1889): 184; 47 (1886): 593; 55 (1894): 160; Caledonian Journal 1 (1892): 73Google Scholar.
85 PM 58 (1897): 747; Council minutes, 16 Feb. 1894, 4/1/4/2, FA.
86 Sandiford, Keith A. P., Cricket and the Victorians (Aldershot, U.K., 1994), 1Google Scholar. Insurance cricket matches were regularly reported in the Post Magazine, starting in 1890.
87 Lowerson, Sport and the English Middle Classes, 81; Ibis 13 (1890): 28.
88 See, for example, Caledonian Journal 1 (1892): 60Google Scholar. For Scottish insurance managers who golfed, see Davidson, History of the Faculty of Actuaries, 88; PM 74 (1913): 345Google Scholar.
89 PM 55 (1894): 431Google Scholar; 57 (1896): 441.
90 Lowerson, Sport and the English Middle Classes, 14, 42-49; Wigglesworth, Neil, The Evolution of English Sport (London, 1996), 36–37Google Scholar; PM 57 (1896): 402Google Scholar; Ibis 10 (1887): 315.
91 PM 56 (1895): 813; Law Union & Crown Athletic Club minutes, 3 June 1912, June 1913, 21,275, GL.
92 PM 57 (1896): 441, 464; Athletic Record and Billiard Chronicle, ms 15/4, Scottish Amicable archives; Pearl Assuance, 153; Law Union & Crown Athletic Club minutes, 21,275, GL; Watson, Ibis Cricket, 66; PM52 (1891): 778.
93 Ibis 13 (1890): 125, 148; Lowerson, Sport and the English Middle Classes, 90.
94 Conder, Story of the London Life, 226; JIA 75 (1949): 132Google Scholar; Letter from J. B. Hirst to R. H. Gudgeon, 12 Nov. 1963, recalling a social gathering held 5 Feb. 1898, GA 2777, AG. On masculinity and mathematics at Cambridge, see Warwick, Masters of Theory, 179-99.
95 Grossmith, Diary of a Nobody, 98,119-20; Wild, The Rise of the Office Clerk, 62, ch. 4, various pages. Wild points out that the positive resolution of these plots marked a change from earlier depictions of clerks by novelists like George Gissing, whose clerks were equally aspirational but much less likely to succeed.
96 Wild, The Rise of the Office Clerk, 64-73. On the Royal Insurance Boating Club, see PM 65 (1904): 889.
97 Wild, Rise of the Office Clerk, 96.
98 Our Own Magazine, no. 1 (1919): 19 (ES 6/5/1/1, ZFS).
