¹ Most of these contributions deal with rubbish (domestic waste), sewage and, to a lesser extent, air pollution (caused by both industrial activities and domestic heating and lighting). On domestic waste recovery, see, among others, Strasser, Susan, Waste and Want (New York, 1999)Google Scholar; and O'Brien, Martin, Crisis of Waste (New York, 2008).Google Scholar On air and water pollution, recent additions include Debora Spar and Krysztof Bebenek, “To the Tap: Public versus Private Water Provision at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” in this issue of the Review, Garwood, Christine, “Green Crusaders or Captives of Industry? The British Alkali Inspectorate and the Ethics of Environmental Decision Making, 1864–1895,” Annals of Science 61, no. 1 (2004): 99–117CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hamlin, Christopher, “The City as a Chemical System? The Chemist as Urban Environmental Professional in France and Britain, 1780–1880,” Journal of Urban History 33, no. 5 (2007): 702–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pontin, Ben, “Integrated Pollution Control in Victorian Britain: Rethinking Progress within the History of Environmental Law,” Journal of Environmental Law 19, no. 2 (2007): 173–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Thorsheim, Peter, Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke and Culture in Britain since 1800 (Columbus, Oh., 2006).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

² This does not imply, of course, that domestic waste recovery was not widespread and economically significant at the time. Recent historical work on industrial by-product development can be found in special issues of Progress in Industrial Ecology 3, no. 4 (2006) and Enterprise and Society 8, no. 2 (2007).

³ Babbage, Charles, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures (London, 1835), 217.Google Scholar

⁴ Wayland, Francis, The Elements of Political Economy (Boston, Mass., 1854), 371–73Google Scholar; Marshall, Alfred, Principles of Economics, 8th ed. (New York, 1920): 129nGoogle Scholar; Marshall, Alfred, Industry and Trade (New York, 1932): 239Google Scholar; Inglis, Robert Harry and Higgs, Henry, Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, vol. 3 (London, 1910)Google Scholar; Commission of National Education of Ireland, Fourth Book of Lesson for the Use of Schools (Dublin, 1851): 279–80Google Scholar; and Kittredge, Henry G., “The Utilization of Wastes and By-Products,” Census Bulletin 190 (16 June 1902).Google Scholar

⁵ Playfair's most extensive biographical treatment is by Wemyss Reid, T., Memoirs and Correspondence of Lyon Playfair, First Lord Playfair of St. Andrews (New York, 1899).Google Scholar Discussions of his early professional years can be found in Walford, Edward, Men of the Time (London, 1862), 625Google Scholar; and Kargon, Robert Hugh, Science in Victorian Manchester (Manches ter, U.K., 1977).Google Scholar

⁶ Playfair, Lyon, “On the Chemical Principles Involved in the Manufactures of the Exhibition as Indicating the Necessity of Industrial Instruction,” in Royal Society of Arts Great Britain, Lectures on the Results of the Great Exhibition of 1851 (London, 1852), 147–208.Google Scholar

⁷ Ibid., 173–74.

⁸ Playfair, Lyon, Subjects of Social Welfare (London, 1889).Google Scholar

⁹ Price, E. D., ed., “Utilization of ‘Waste Materials,’” in Hazell's Annual Cyclopedia (London, 1888), 464.Google Scholar See also Bremner, David, The Industries of Scotland: Their Rise, Progress and Present Condition (Edinburgh, 1869)Google Scholar; Playfair, Lyon, Subjects of Social Welfare (London, U. K., 1889)Google Scholar; and Kargon, Science in Victorian Manchester. Young obtained his key patent to produce paraffin in 1850 and showed a single paraffin candle at the Great Exhibition of 1851 (Crookes, William, “Chemical Products—The Application of Waste,” Popular Science Review 2, no. 5 [1862]: 58–70Google Scholar, and Price, “Utilization”).

¹⁰ See, among others, Burton, Anthony, Vision and Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 1999)Google Scholar; and Robertson, Bruce, “The South Kensington Museum in Context: An Alternative History,” Museum and Society 2, no. 1 (2004): 1–14.Google Scholar

¹¹ Striking similarities in terms of tone, style, and content suggest that the Scottish chemist might have authored two earlier, much shorter, pieces on the topic “Nothing is Useless,” Chambers' Edinburgh Journal 132 (1846): 19–21; and “The Value of Rubbish,” Chambers' Edinburgh Journal 385 (1851): 310–14.

¹² Royal Society of Arts, Lectures on the Results of the Great Exhibition of 1851 (London, 1852).Google Scholar This essay was reprinted several times in the following years in both the United Kingdom and the United States.

¹³ Playfair, Lyon, “Waste Products Made Useful,” North American Review 155, no. 432 (1892): 560–68.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Playfair, Lyon, “On the Chemical Principles Involved in the Manufactures of the Exhibition as Indicating the Necessity of Industrial Instruction,” in Royal Society of Arts, Lectures on the Results of the Great Exhibition of 1851 (London, 1852), 181–82.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Different types of coal gas were obtained as the result of processes that converted coal into combustible gases and other substances. It was mostly used as a fuel and illuminant until the advent of electric lighting and natural gas led to its demise, while coal-gas residuals would later be mostly replaced by petroleum-refining residues.

¹⁶ Playfair, , “Waste Products Made Useful,” 566.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Playfair, , “On the Chemical Principles Involved in the Manufactures of the Exhibition,” 162.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Playfair, Lyon, “Lecture II (Thursday, May 15, 1862),” Chemical News (1862): 327–32.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Playfair, Lyon, Subjects of Social Welfare (London, 1889), 269.Google Scholar

²⁰ Ibid., 250.

²¹ Davidson, Alan, “Introduction,” in Simmonds, Peter Lund, The Curiosity of Food: Or the Dainties and Delicacies of Different Nations Obtained from the Animal Kingdom (London, 1859Google Scholar; repr. Berkeley, Calif., 2001). Simmonds's publications include The Dictionary of Trade Products (London, 1858); The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom (London, 1854); Tropical Agriculture (New York, 1877); The Commercial Products of the Sea (New York, 1879); and The Animal Food Resources of Different Nations (New York, 1885).

²² Greysmith, David, “The Empire as Infinite Resource: The Work of P. L. Simmonds (1814–1897),” Journal of Newspaper and Periodical History 6, no. 1 (1990): 6.Google Scholar

²³ Simmonds, , The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom, xi.Google Scholar

²⁴ Simmonds was involved as organizer or judge in all the major international exhibitions from the 1850s to the early 1880s, and in most (if not all, according to Morel, Jul, Les richesses de la nature: Le règne animal [Gand, Belgium, 1876])Google Scholar of the smaller international industrial exhibitions of the period. A preliminary list compiled from his writings suggests that he was a judge in at least fifteen of these smaller events held between 1855 and 1873, such as the Fishery Exhibition of Bergen (1865) and the Maritime International Exhibition of Le Havre (1868). He was also in charge of various topical exhibitions dealing with products such as wool and silk.

²⁵ Greysmith, , “The Empire as Infinite Resource,” 8.Google Scholar

²⁶ Simmonds, Peter Lund, “The Production and Uses of Cotton-Seed Oil,” American Journal of Pharmacy (May 1895): 249.Google Scholar

²⁷ Anonymous, , “Peter Lund Simmonds FLS,” Journal of the Society of Arts (1898): 1150.Google Scholar

²⁸ Simmonds, Peter Lund, Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, 3rd ed. (London, 1876), 19–20Google Scholar; Anonymous, , Review of “Coffee and Chicory,” Athenaeum 1927 (1854): 429.Google Scholar

²⁹ The papers are “On Some Undeveloped and Unappreciated Articles of Raw Produce from Different Parts of the World,” Journal of the Society of Arts 2, no. 106 (1854): 33–42; and “On the Utilization of Waste Substances,” Journal of the Society of Arts 7, no. 325 (1859): 175–88. See also Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, v.

³⁰ Waste Products, 6. It is unclear whether Simmonds had been awarded this premium to write his 1859 article or the first edition of Waste Products.

³¹ Ibid., iii. Simmonds's remarks read as follows: “To the Council of the Society of Arts, before whom the subject treated of in this work has been frequently discussed, and who have awarded the author the Society's medal for his paper on undeveloped products, and more re cently elected him an honorary life member, this work is gratefully dedicated by their obliged and obedient servant.”

³² Ibid., vi.

³³ Ibid., 2.

³⁴ Ibid., v.

³⁵ Ibid., iii.

³⁶ Simmonds, Peter Lund, “On the Useful Application of Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances,” Journal of the Society of Arts 17 (1869): 171–81.Google Scholar

³⁷ Marsh, George Perkins, The Earth as Modified by Human Action (London, 1874), 37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁸ Anonymous, , “Vienna Exhibition—Use of Waste Materials and Their Products,” Journal of the Society of Arts (20 Sept. 1872): 860.Google Scholar See also Simmonds, Peter Lund, “The Production and Uses of Cotton-Seed Oil,” American Journal of Pharmacy (May 1895): 249.Google Scholar

³⁹ Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, 10.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Ibid., preface, iii-iv.

⁴¹ This broad classification permeates his work and can probably be traced back to both common sense and the Prince Consort and the 1851 Commissioners. See Burton, Anthony, Visionand Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 1999), 45.Google Scholar

⁴² Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Descriptive Catalogue of the Collection Illustrating the Utilization of Waste Products [Bethnal branch of the South Kensington Museum] (London, 1875), iii.Google Scholar

⁴³ Ibid., 477.

⁴⁴ Ibid., 4.

⁴⁵ Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Twenty-Fourth Report (London, 1877), 503–4Google Scholar; Twenty-Fifth Report (London, 1878), 445; Twenty-Sixth Report (London 1879), 576; Twenty-Eighth Report (London, 1881), 506; Thirtieth Report (London, 1883), 532; Thirty-First Report (London, 1884), 254.

⁴⁶ Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Thirtieth Report (London, 1883), 532.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Simmonds, Peter Lund, “The Savings of Science,” Popular Science Monthly 33, no. 2 (1883): 798–811.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ From various memos, minutes, and letters written at the time, Victoria and Albert Museum's nominal file “Bethnal Green Museum, Waste Products Collection, 1874–1928.”

⁴⁹ Support for the former perspective can be found in the work published by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, while arguments in support of the latter are often expressed in the publications of the U.K. Department for Business, Enterprise and Reg ulatory Reform.

⁵⁰ Playfair, Lyon, Subject of Social Welfare (London, 1889), 269.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, 4.Google Scholar

⁵² Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Descriptive Catalogue of the Collection Illustrating the Utilization of Waste Products (London, 1875), 4.Google Scholar

⁵³ Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, 10.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Ibid., 4.

⁵⁵ Ibid., 10–11.

⁵⁶ See Desrochers, Pierre, “Did the Invisible Hand Need a Regulatory Glove to Develop a Green Thumb? Some Historical Perspective on Market Incentives, Win-Win Innovations and the Porter Hypothesis,” Environmental and Resource Economics 41, no. 4 (2008).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁷ Ayres, Robert U. and Ayres, Leslie W., A Handbook of Industrial Ecology (Cheltenham, U.K., 2002).CrossRefGoogle Scholar Of course, “nightsoil” and other urban wastes had long been collected profitably in many parts of the world, while trained chemists were by then thoroughly familiar with Antoine Lavoisier's notion that “Nothing is lost” and Justus von Liebig's “chemical metamorphosis” and “materials cycling.” Playfair, however, was probably the first successful popularizer of the industrial-ecology metaphor to refer to interindustrial links. For some historical perspective on societal metabolism and von Liebig, see Fischer-Kowalski, Marina, “Society's Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Materials Flow Analysis, Part 1,1860–1970,” Journal of Industrial Ecology 2, no. 1 (1998): 61–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fischer-Kowalski, Marina and Hüttler, Walter, “Society's Metabolism: The Intellectual History of Materials Flow Analysis, Part II, 1970–1998,” Journal of Industrial Ecology 2, no. 4 (1998): 61–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mårald, Erland, “Everything Circulates: Agricultural Chemistry and Recycling Theories in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century,” Environment and History 8, no. 1 (2002): 65–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hamlin, Christopher, “The City as a Chemical System? The Chemist as Urban Environmental Professional in France and Britain, 1780–1880,” Journal of Urban History 33, no. 5 (2007): 702–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁸ Anonymous, , “Nothing is Useless,” Chambers' Edinburgh Journal 132 (1846): 21.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Playfair, , “On the Chemical Principles Involved in the Manufactures of the Exhibition,” 165–66.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Playfair, , “Waste Products Made Useful,” 560–61Google Scholar, 565.

⁶¹ Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, 1–2.Google Scholar

⁶² Ibid., 10.

⁶³ Wynter, Andrew, “The Use of Waste Substances,” in Good Words for 1876, ed. McLeod, Donald (London, 1876), 155.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Nursey, Perry Fairfax, “The Economic Use of Blast-Furnace Slag,” Van Nostrand's Eclectic Engineering Magazine 12 (1875): 401–9.Google Scholar See also Anonymous, Review of “Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances by Simmonds, Peter Lund,” Popular Science Review 2 (1863): 254–58Google Scholar; and Desrochers, Pierre, “Learning from History or from Nature, or Both? Recycling Networks and their Metaphors in Early Industrialization,” Progress in Industrial Ecology 2, no. 1 (2005): 19–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar, for other contemporary uses of this metaphor.

⁶⁵ Anonymous, , “Waste Not!” Chambers's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Arts (18 Dec. 1869): 807.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Simmonds, , “On the Useful Application of Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances,” 178.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Burton's, Anthony verdict in his Vision and Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 1999), 121–22Google Scholar, is generally negative, while a contemporary source like Anonymous, , “Sight-seeing in Bethnal Green,” All the Year Round (1872): 228–32Google Scholar, reports good attendance in the Museum on the day of his visit in the year of its opening.

⁶⁸ Aschmann, F. T., “Notes on the Bethnal Green Museum, London,” School of Mines Quarterly 2 (1881): 72.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Anonymous, , “Sight-seeing in Bethnal Green,” 228.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Greenwood, Thomas, Museums and Art Galleries (London, 1888): 266.Google Scholar See also Huish, Marcus B. and Thomson, David C., The Year's Art 1883, 2nd rev. ed. (London, 1883), 30.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Black, Barbara J., On Exhibit: Victorians and Their Museums (Charlottesville, Va., 2000), 33–34Google Scholar; Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, iiiGoogle Scholar; Anonymous, , “Waste,” Warehousemen and Drapers' Trade Journal (Feb. 12, 1876): 57.Google Scholar

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⁷⁴ Anonymous, , Review of “Descriptive Catalogue of the Collection Illustrating the Utilisation of Waste Products (Bethnal Green Museum),” Gardeners' Chronicle 4 (1875): 427.Google Scholar An other positive review is Anonymous, , “Notes,” Nature 12 (1875): 540–41.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, Twenty-Fourth Report, with Appendices, 504 (London, 1877)Google Scholar; Twenty-Fifth, with Appendices, 486 (London, 1878), Twenty-Sixth Report, with Appendices, 576 (London, 1879).

⁷⁶ Anonymous, , “Nothing Lost,” Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science and Art 4 (1859): 563.Google Scholar

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⁷⁸ The view that the Chinese and Japanese were much better recyclers of organic waste, especially of sewage, seems to have been widespread among European writers at the time. See Mårald, , “Everything Circulates,” 65–84Google Scholar; Wynter, Andrew, “The Use of Refuse” Quarterly Review 124 (1868): 335.Google Scholar This lengthy essay by Wynter was also printed in Every Saturday and the London Quarterly Review and later reprinted in Wynter, Andrew, Curiosities of Toil and Other Papers (London, 1870).Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Timbs, John, One Thousand Domestic Hints (London, 1871), 2–4.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ See, among others, Anonymous, , “Penny Wisdom,” Household Words 6, no. 134 (1852): 97–101Google Scholar; Anonymous, , “Nothing Lost,” Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science and Art 48, no. 8 (1859): 563Google Scholar; Anonymous, , “Chemical Appliances to Industry,” Journal of Education for Upper Canada 5 (1852): 112Google Scholar; Anonymous, , “Scraps and Refuse Economised,” New England Farmer 9, no. 1 (1857): 23–24Google Scholar; Anonymous, , “Curiosities of the Chemistry of Arts,” Illustrated Magazine of Art 1, no. 6 (1853): 358–59Google Scholar; Bosworth, R. S., “Chemical Transformations,” Cincinnatus 2, no. 1 (1857): 35–38Google Scholar; Wells, David. A., Things not Generally Known (New York, 1859Google Scholar; reprinted on several occasions in later years).

⁸¹ Matéaux, Clara L., The Wonderland of Work (London, 1880), 306–7Google Scholar; Angelina, [pseud.], “The Horrors of Chemistry,” Punch 22 (Jan.-June 1852): 23.Google Scholar

⁸² See Anonymous, , “Waste Not!” 807–9Google Scholar; Chambers, William, “Waste Materials,” Chambers's Journal of Popular Literature, Science and Art, 4th ser., 546 (1874): 369Google Scholar; Wynter, “The Use of Waste Substances.”

⁸³ Calvert, Frederick Crace, “On the Manufacture and Application of Various Products Obtained from Coal (Coal Gas Excepted),” Mining Magazine 5 (1855): 55.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Carey, Henry Charles, Principles of Social Science (Philadelphia, 1858), 385–86.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Hobson, John A., The Evolution of Modern Capitalism: A Study of Machine Production (New York, 1917), 75.Google Scholar

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⁸⁷ Daily papers include the Daily News, the Observer, and the Standard. Broad periodicals include All the Year Round, the British Almanac, the various iterations of the Chambers's Journal, Good Words, the Quarterly Review, and the Saturday Review. More specialized outlets include the Journal of the Society of Arts, the Manufacturer and Builder, the Mining Journal, Nature, and the Popular Science Review. Perhaps the lengthiest and most detailed reviews of Simmonds's, work are to be found in the Popular Science Review 2 (1863): 254–58Google Scholar; in Wynter's, Andrew “The Use of Refuse,” Quarterly Review 124 (1868): 334–57Google Scholar; and in the Chambers's Journal 546 (1874): 369–71. Wynter, Andrew, “The Use of Waste Substances,” Good Words for 1876 (1876): 155–60Google Scholar, is a lengthy review essay of the third edition of Waste Products, which does not give Simmonds full credit for the information listed in the paper.

⁸⁸ Anonymous, , “What's the Use of That?” All the Year Round 8 (1862): 186.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Anonymous, Review of “Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances by Simmonds, Peter Lund,” Popular Science Review 2 (1863): 258.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Anonymous, , “Some Words to Inventors,” Manufacturer and Builder 16, no. 5 (May 1884): 98.Google Scholar

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⁹² Inglis, and Higgs, , Palgrave's Dictionary of Political Economy, vol. 3, 292.Google Scholar

⁹³ Gore, George, The Scientific Basis of National Progress (London, 1882), 150–51.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Platt, James, Platt's Essays, Vol. II, Life, Mortality, Progress (London, 1884), 506–7.Google Scholar

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⁹⁷ Simmonds, , Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances, iii-iv.Google Scholar His 1869 article simi larly discusses the influence of his earlier writings on the topic.

⁹⁸ Simmonds, , “The Production and Uses of Cotton-Seed Oil,” 249.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Contemporary obituaries and biographical entries on Simmonds can be found in, among other outlets, the American Journal of Pharmacy, A Supplement to Allibone's Criti cal Dictionary of English Literature, the Athenæum, Dansk Biografisk Lexikon, Diction naire universel des contemporains, the Freemason, the Journal of the Society of Art, and Men and Women of the Time.

¹⁰⁰ Suessengut, Otto, Die Industrie der Abfallstoffe (Leipzig, Germany, 1879).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Blaikie, William Garden, Better Days for Working People (London, 1881), 130.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Muspratt was a chemist by training and one of the heirs of a then prominent Liverpool family. See Stephens, Michael D. and Roderick, Gordon W., “The Muspratts of Liverpool,” Annals of Science 29, no. 3 (1972): 282–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰³ Kershaw, John B. C., The Recovery and Use of Industrial and Other Waste (London, 1928), vii.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Marx, Karl, Capital, A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 3: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole (Chicago, 1909), 96Google Scholar, 95, 120–1.

¹⁰⁵ Greysmith, , “The Empire as Infinite Resource,” 3–15.Google Scholar Simmonds's letter was part of a mass-mailing effort, but it seems likely that Marx visited Simmonds's waste exhibit.

¹⁰⁶ Crookes, William, “Chemical Products,” 58.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ The original reference is in Jevons, William Stanley, The Principles of Economics (London, 1905), 28–9Google Scholar, in a subsection on “successive utilization.”

¹⁰⁸ The original query (6 June 1918) and Lehfeldt's reply (12 June 1918) can be found in the Victoria and Albert Museum Registry's “Bethnal Green Museum, Waste Products Collection, 1874–1928” file.

¹⁰⁹ Koller, Theodor, The Utilization of Waste Products, 3rd rev. ed., transi, from the 2nd rev. German ed. (New York, 1918)Google Scholar; Razous, Paul, Les déchets et sous-produits industriels (Paris, 1905)Google Scholar; Kershaw, The Recovery and Use of Industrial and Other Waste; Lipsett, Charles H., Industrial Waste and Salvage: Conservation and Utilization (New York, 1951).Google Scholar

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¹¹² Part of the RSA's 2005 manifesto states that its goal is to “develop mutually reinforcing policies, products, technologies behaviours and lifestyle that reduce waste of all kinds, with zero waste as the long term ideal.”